22502863540 / Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2019 with funding from Wellcome Library https://archive.org/details/b31367094 TURNER ON BIRDS / Sottlion: C. J. CLAY and SONS, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE. ©lagsoia: 50, WELLINGTON STREET. Edpjtg: F. A. BROCKFIAUS. lotft: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Bowbag anb fllalcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd, '^Cf TURNER ON BIRDS: A SHORT AND SUCCINCT HISTORY OF THE PRINCIPAL BIRDS NOTICED BY PLINY AND ARISTOTLE, FIRST PUBLISHED BY Doctor WILLIAM TURNER, 1544. EDITED, WITH INTRODUCTION, TRANSLATION, NOTES, AND APPENDIX, BY A. H. EVANS, M.A. Clare College, Cambridge. CAMBRIDGE : AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1903 6 23/ — dambritige: PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. PREFACE. IN translating this treatise it has been thought advisable to adhere as closely as possible to the original text of Turner, though in many places a more modern style of phraseology would doubtless have better pleased the ear of the non-scientific reader. Not a few difficult points of interpretation have arisen in the course of the work, and the Editor welcomes this opportunity of expressing his gratitude to Professor Newton and to Mr R. D. Archer-Hind of Trinity College for the invaluable help that he has received from them in elucidating the hard passages and in revising the proofs. The Editor’s thanks are also due to the Syndics of the University Press for undertaking the present publication. 9, Harvey Road, Cambridge. July, 1903. NOTE. It may be remarked that the pages of Turner’s work are not numbered in the original; but, for convenience of reference, the pagination is marked in the margin—the numbers being included in square brackets. INTRODUCTION. William Turner, author of the rare treatise here republished, was a native of Morpeth in Northumberland and is supposed to have been the son of a tanner of that town. By the aid of Thomas, the first Lord Wentworth, he was enabled to enter Pembroke Hall in the University of Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was elected a fellow of his College in 1530. At Pembroke he became acquainted with Ridley (who instructed him in Greek) and Latimer, two of the most earnest advocates of the Reformed doctrines, which he himself, both then and afterwards, strenuously embraced; but there is no need to dwell upon his theological views or the polemical works in which they were set forth. While at Cambridge Turner was a zealous student of botany, and in 1538 published a Libellus de re herbaria. About two years later he left this University for Oxford, and soon after suffered imprisonment for preaching without a licence. On his release he quitted England, and travelled by way of the Netherlands and Germany to Italy, attending the botanical lectures of Luca Ghini at Bologna, where, or at Ferrara, he took the degree of M.D. Thereafter he proceeded to Switzerland, forming a close friendship with the great naturalist Conrad Gesner of Zurich, Professor of Medicine and Philosophy in the School of that city, who held him in high esteem, and with whom he afterwards kept up a correspondence. He seems to have been at Basel in 1543, but early in 1544 he was at Cullen (Cologne), where he published not only the present work—dedicated to Edward Prince of Wales (afterwards King Edward the Sixth)—but also edited the Dialogus de Avibus of his friend Gybertus Longolius of Utrecht, who died the preceding year. He pursued his botanical studies in several parts of Germany, as well as in the Netherlands, including East Friesland, for he became physician to the Count of Emden, and visited the islands of Juist and Norderney lying off the coast of that province. On the death of King Henry the Eighth he returned to England, becoming chaplain and physician to Lord Protector the Duke of Somerset; but he lived at Kew, where he established a botanic garden. He was, moreover, incorporated M.D. of Oxford, and was appointed a prebendary of York. In 1550 the Privy Council sent letters for his election as Provost of Oriel College in Oxford, but the post had been already filled, and a similar disappointment awaited him in regard to the Presidency of Magdalen College in the same University. He then applied to Sir William Cecil for leave to return to Germany, but was soon after consoled by being appointed Dean of Wells, and, having in 1551 published the first part of his New Herbal, was during the next year ordained priest by his old friend Ridley, then Bishop of London. On the accession of Queen Mary Turner had to vacate his deanery, and betook himself for safety once more to the Continent, visiting Rome and several places in Germany and Switzerland. When Queen Elizabeth ascended the throne he returned to England, and recovered his deanery, to which was attached the rectory of Wedmore in Somersetshire ; but in 1564 he was suspended for nonconformity and seems to have come to live in London. In 1557 he had addressed a letter on English Fishes to Gesner, which was included in that naturalist’s Historia Animalium \ and in 1562 he published the second part of his Herbal, which he dedicated to Lord Wentworth, the son of his original benefactor. On the 7th of July 1568 Turner died at his house in Crutched Friars in the City of London, and was buried in the church of St Olave, Hart Street. Turner married Jane, daughter of George Ander, Aider- man of Cambridge, by whom he had issue Winifred, Peter and Elizabeth. It must be understood that, his scientific work apart, nearly the whole of Turner’s life was spent in religious controversy, and he published a considerable number of polemical works, the titles of which may be seen in the bibliography appended to the excellent ‘ Life ’ prefixed to Mr Jackson’s facsimile reprint of the Libettus de re herbm'ia'^^ whence all the particulars above given are taken. Other lists of Turner’s works may be found in Cooper’s Athenae Cantabidgienses (l. pp. 257—259) and the Dictionary of National Biograptiy (LVII. pp. 365, 366). Turner’s object in writing the present treatise is fully set forth in his ‘Epistola Nuncupatoria’ prefixed to it. While attempting to determine the principal kinds of birds named by Aristotle and Pliny, he has added notes from his own experience on some species which had come under his observation, and in so doing he has produced the first book on Birds which treats them in anything like a modern scientific spirit and not from the medical point of view adopted by nearly all his predecessors; nor is it too much to say that almost every page bears witness to a personal knowledge of the subject, which would be distinctly creditable even to a modern ornithologist. This knowledge is especially evident in his account of the habits of the Hobby (p. 19), Hen-Harrier (p. 19), Water- Ousel (p. 23), Moor-Buzzard (p. 33), Osprey (p. 37), Godwit (p. 45), Wheatear (p. 53), Sandpiper (p. 57), Eieldfare (p. 59), Cuckoo (p. 69), Black-headed Gull (p. 77), Black Tern (p. 79), Swallows (p. loi). Cormorant (p. iii), Shrike (p. 119), Redbreast and Redstart (p. 157); while his keen eye for distinctions is shown in his descriptions of the Black Cock and Grey Hen (p. 43), Godwit (p. 45), Tree-Creeper (p. 53), ^ Libellus de 7‘e hei'baida novus, by William Turner, originally published in 1538, reprinted in facsimile, with notes, modern names, and a Life of the Author, by Benjamin Daydon Jackson, F.L.S. Privately Pi'mted. London; 1877. a 5 Doves (p. 59), Lapwing (p. 77), Nutcracker (p. 95), Reed- Bunting (p. 103), Kites (p. 117), Bullfinch (p. 161) and others. He is most careful to tell us whether he observed the various species in England or abroad and their comparative abundance, and to note the breeding of the rarer species, such as the Spoonbill (p. 151), and Crane (p. 97) within our islands— that of the Crane being of special interest; the whole account of the Cuckoo (p. 69) is also most noticeable, as is that of the curious Walt-rapp (p. 95) of which Gesner writes as follows: Gesner De Corvo Sylvatico^ (p. 337). AuiS, cuius hie effigies habetur, a nostris nominatur uulgo ein Waldrapp\ id est coruus sylvaticus...Sunt qui phalacrocoracem hanc auem interpretentur, quoniam & magnitudine & colore fere coruum refert: & caluescit, ut uidi, cum adultior est. Turnerus Aristotelis coruum aquaticum & Plinij phalacrocoracem, & coruum syluaticum nostrum auem unam esse arbitratur, tertium genus graculi. Coruus syluaticus Helue- tiorum, inquit, auis est corpore longo et ciconia paulo minore, cruribus breuibus, sed crassis : rostro rutilo, parum adunco (curuo) & sex pollices longo: alba in capite macula, & ea nuda, si bene memini....Sic ille. Doubtless Turner’s work is not free from errors, as in the case of the very old story of the breeding of the Bernicle-Goose (which, however, he was most loth to credit even when assured of its truth by an Irish Divine), in his confounding of the Onocrotalus with the Ardea stellaris and the Cornish with the Alpine Chough ; yet these are but small blots on a very excellent treatise, which compares most favourably with other writings of his time. It is quite evident from various passages that Turner was acquainted with Aristotle’s works in the original Greek, and especially with his History of Animals\ but he preferred quoting that author from the Latin translation of Theodorus 1 Conradi Gesneri Tigurini medici & Philosophise professoris in Schola Tigurina Historise Animalium Liber ill. qui est de Auium natura. Tiguri apud Christoph. Froschovervm, Anno m.d.lv. Gaza of Thessalonica, the most celebrated Scholar of his day, who, fleeing from the sack of Constantinople, played a conspicuous part in the rise of the “New Learning,” and after a course of teaching in Rome, entered successively the service of the Popes Nicholas the Fifth and Sixtus the Fourth, eventually dying in poverty in Lucania about 1484. Exact transcription of a text was considered by no means necessary in those days: consequently we find many observations and explanations inserted in the text of Aristotle and Pliny, which had no place in the original^ Besides referring to Gesner, Turner mentions other learned men by name and occasionally quotes from their works; while his pages also inform us of many places that he visited. The following excerpts from Gesner not only give instances of correspondence between him and Turner, but also shew that the former was accustomed to correct the latter from his wider knowledge of Ornithology. De Branta vel Bernicla.., (p. 107). Ide [Turnerus] post librum suum de avibus publicatum, in epistola ad me data, Berniclas siue Brantas (inquit) ex putridis nauis malis fungorum more nasci, minime fabulosum esse doctorum & honestorum uirorum oculata fides mihi persuasit. Branta anserem palustrem ualde refert: his tamen notis ab eo differt. Branta breuior est, a collo quod rubescit nonnihil, ad medium usq uentrem, qui candicat, nigra est. , anserum more segetes populatur. In Vuallia (quae pars est Angliae) in Hibernia & Scotia aues istae adhuc rudes & implumes in littore, sed non sine forma certa & propria auis passim inueniuntur. Et rursus. Praeter brantam aut berniclam est alia auis, quae originem suam arbori refert acceptam. i\rbores sunt in Scotia ad littus maris crescentes, e quibus prodeunt ueluti fungi parui, primum informes, postea pau- latim integram auis formam acquirunt, perfectae tandem magnitudinis illae, rostro aliquantisper pendent, paulo post in aquam decidunt, & tum demum uiuunt. Hoc tot tantaeq integritatis uiri affirmauerunt ut credere audeam, & aliis credere suadea. Haec ille. Eliota Anglus &c.... ^ The precise references to Aristotle and Pliny are now supplied, from the texts of Aubert and Wimmer, and Sillig respectively. De Vulpansere (p. 156). Chenalopex (inquit Turnerus Anglus) ab ansere & uulpe nomen habet... Et rursus in epistola ad me, Vulpanserem Angli vocat a Bergander, nidulatur in cuniculoru foueis more uulpium, anate maior, minor ansere, alis ruffis. Eliota Anglus... De Pygargo (p. 199). Pygargum (inquit Turnerus) literatores quidam inepte trappum a Germanis dictum (tardam, uel bistardam) interpretantur. Sed pygargus Anglorum lingua, nisi fallar, erna vocatur, an erne. Ego ernam audio dici genus aquile quod apud Frisios ad Oceanum Germanicum per hyemem degat, colore nigro, quod cornices quaedam ut ex escarum eius re- liquijs uictitent sequantur. Pygargus est forte quam Anglice dicimus ringetayle, Eliota. Sed Turnerus ringtalum Anglis dictum ab albo circulo caudam circumeunte, buteone minorem, subbuteonem Aristotelis esse suspicatur. Quod si minor est buteone, non poterit esse pygargus. De Caprimulgo (p. 235). [Having quoted Turner] Idem postea in litteris ad me missis, caprimulgum se uidisse scribit prope Bonnam (Germaniae ciuitatem ad ripam Rheni, supra Coloniam) ubi a uulgo appellatur Naghtrauen, id est coruus nocturnus. Nos auis illius quae Argetine vocatur Nachtram, corrupto forsan nomine, alibi Nachtrap, effigiem infra ponemus cum historia nycticoracis. De Carduele (p. 235). ...Auis Aristoteli thraupis, 6paviri^;, diets, a Gaza carduelis conuertitur: quod & Hermolao probatur. Turnero quidem non assenserim, qui chloridem nostram {Grunlmg uulgo vocant) thraupin esse conijeit. De Rata terrestri (pp. 481—482). ...Perdix rustica vel rusticula Plinij (inquit Turnerus in epistola ad me) ab Anglis vocatur rala. Est autem rala duplex, altera cibum e ripis fluminum petit, altera degit in ericeto in locis sylvestribus. Aquaticam illam Coloniae diu alui, & male uolare deprehendi, & egregie pugnacem. Rostrum & crura erat rubra, plume multis maculis respers^. • ♦ • Montana vero ilia & syluestris crura habet multo breuiora aquatili, & plumas undiq magis cinereas, sed rubra interim crura habet & rostrum, auis utraq apud nos regium epulum (real Itali regium vocant, Galli royal, & forte hinc ductum est raise vocabulu. a colore crurum forte erythropus fuerit) vocatur. Hsec ille. De Cincio (p. 592). Turnerus cinclum auem Anglice interpretatur a water swallow, (quasi dicas hirundinem aquaticam,) Germanice ein Stembeisser, (sed nostri aliam aue, coccothrausten nostrum, Steinbeisser appellant.) Auicula (inquit) quam ego cinclum esse puto, galerita paulo maior est, colore in tergo nigro, uentre albo, tibiis longis, & rostro neutiquam breui. Vere circa ripas fluminum ualde clamosa est & querula, breues & crebros facit uolatus. ^ Huic Tumeri descriptioni cognata uideri potest merula aquatica nostra; magis uero illa, quam circa Argentoratum Lyssklicker appellant: quam non similem modo Tumeri cinclo, sed prorsus eandem esse conijcio, cuius figuram sequens pagina cotinet. De Motacilla quam nostri albam cognominant (p. 593). Turnerus in libro de Auibus Cnipologon Aristotelis (id est culicilega interprete Gaza) hac auem esse putat....[quotation].. ..Sed postea in epistola ad me, Culicilegam Aristotelis (inquit) in terra Bergensi uidi, tota cinerei fere coloris est, & speciem habet pici Martij, illa uero quam culicilegam esse putaba, est uariola nisi fallor. De Nycticorace (pp. 602—604). Turnerus in litteris ad me missis caprimulgum auem se uidisse scribit prope Bonnam (Germaniae ciuitatem ad ripam Rheni, supra Coloniam,) ubi a uulgo appellatur Naghtraucn, id est coruus nocturnus. Nos in praecedente pagina effigiem adiecimus auis quae circa Argentoratum, ut audio Nachtram^ alibi Nachtrab nominatur, quae tamen neq caprimulgus neq nycticorax mihi uidetur. [The figure is of the Night-Heron, unmistakably.] De Onocratalo (pp. 607—608). Onocrotalus Machliniensis, quae Vogclhain a Brabantis uocatur, quinquaginta annis, ut ipsi ferunt, Machliniae uixit, cygno maior est. penn^ foris albicant, in fundo uero rubrum quiddam ostendunt, collum duas spithamas longum est, aut paulo longius, rostrum, quod rubrum habet, dodrantali longitudine est & quatuor uncias longius, & in fine hami propemodum more incuruum & uersus finem latius latiusq^ proturbinatur. crura anserinis similia, breuia, nimirum pro magnitudine tanti corporis: in pectore magnum habet ueluti sacculum protuberantem Alis est longissimis, & ipsis in summa extremitate nigris, Guil. Turnerus in epistola ad me.... Bononiae uisus est mihi onocrotalus (uerba sunt ex epistola Angli cuiusdam amici ad me) plumis cinereis tectus, cygno maior, palmipes, capite mergi, rostro quatuor palmas fere longo, & in fine adunco, collo deplumi, amplissimo, ut anatem deuorare posset. Captam aiebat in lacu Benaco.... Solis uictitat piscibus, & bis tantum anno bibit. Turnerus... Pisces praesertim anguillas auidissime uorat botaurus auis, Turnerus. idem amicus quidam de onocrotalo ad me scripsit, ego onocrotalum quidem hoc facere non dubito : de botauro dubitari potest, praesertim cum multi etia non indocti cum onocrotalo eum confundant. De Perdice (p. 644). ...Quae Aristoteles & Ouidius de perdice scribunt, omnia nostrae perdici uulgari conueniunt, nempe uolandi nidulandiq, ratio, astutia, circa prolem solicitudo, corporis grauitas, & uocis stridor, a quo etiam nomen accepisse uidetur, Turnerus in epistola ad nos. The ‘Avium praecipuarum...Historia’ was reprinted by Dr George Thackeray, Provost of King’s College, Cambridge, in 1823; but the reprint is as rare as, if not rarer than, the original. Two copies are in the Library of King’s College. The following is a list of the Birds determined by Turner. Alaudid.®. Alauda arvensis. Lerk or Laverock. German Lerch^ p. 80. A. arborea. Wodlerck, p. 80. A. sp. ? Wilde Lerc or Heth . Lerk. G. Held Lerch., p. 80. Galerita cristata. [No English name.] G. Copera., p. 80. Alcedinid^. Alcedo ispida. Kynges fissher. G. Eissvogel, pp. 18—22. [Turner recognised two kinds of Kingfishers described by Aristotle and Pliny, but does not state what they are]. Anatid^e, Anas boscas. Duck, pp. 22, 48. Anser (2 species.) Gose. G. Ganss, p. 22. Bernicla leucopsis. Brant or Bernicle Gose, p, 26. Cygnus olor. Swan. G. Swdn^ p. 120. Mareca penelope. Wigene, p. 48. Nyroca ferina. Pochard, p. 48. Querquedula crecca. Tele, p. 48. Tadorna cornuta. Bergander, p. 24. Ardeid^. Ardea sp. ? (white). Cryel or Dwarf Heron, p. 38. A. cinerea. Heron. G. Reyger, p. 36. Botauriis stellaris. Bittour, But- tor, Buttour, or Myre Dromble. G. Bittour., Rosdoni., pp. 38, 40, 122. Caprimulgid^r. Caprimulgus europcEus. [No English name], p. 48. Certhiid^. Certhia familiaris. Creper, p. 52. CHARADRIID^, Charadriuspluvialis. Pluver. G. Pulver.,^. \'^2. Vanellus vulgaris. Lapwing. G. Kywit., pp. 76, 174. ClCONllD.(E. Ciconia alba. Stork. G. Storck., Sax. Ebeher., p. 54. ClNCLlD^. Cinchis aquaticus. Water-Craw, p. 22. COLUMBID/E. Columbas^.1 Dove. G. Taube., Sax. Duve., p. 59. [Venice Dove, p. 62.] C. cenas. Stocdove. G. Holtz- taube., p. 60. C. palumbus. Coushot or Ring- ged Dove. G. Ringel Taube., p. 60. Turtur communis. Turtel Duve, p. 60. Corvids. Corvus corax. Raven. G. Rabe, p. 64. C. cornix. Winter Crow, p. 64. C. corone. Crow. G. Krae, Kraeg., p. 64. C. frugilegus. [No English name], p. 64. C. 7nonedula. Caddo, Chogh, Ka. G. Do I, Sax. A Ike, p. 92. Garrulus glandarius. Jay. G. Mercolphus, p. 144. Nucifraga caryocatactes. [No English name.] G. Nous- brecher, p. 94. Pica rustica. Py, Piot. G. Elster, Atzel, pp. 142, 144. Pyrrhocorax graculus. Cornish Choghe. G. Bergdol, p. 90. [Confounded with P. alpmus.\ CuculiDtE. Cuculus canorus. Cuk- kow, or Gouke. G. Kukkuck, p. 66. Cypselid/e. Cypsehis apus. Chirche Martnette. Rok Marti nette. G. Kirch Swalbe, pp. 100, 102. C. melba. Great Swallow. G.6^^r Swalbe, p. 102. Falconid^. Accipiter nisus. [No English name], p. 66. Aquila sp.? Right Egle. G. Edel Arn, p. 36. Astur palumbarius [?] Sparhauc. G. Sperwer, p. 18. Buteo vulgaris. Bushard, p. 16. Circus ceruginosus. Balbushard, p. 32. C. cyaneus. Hen-Harroer, Ring- tale, p. 18. [Turner calls the male Hen- Harroer, the female Ringtale, erroneously considering them two species.] Falco (Esalo7i. Merlin. G. S77ierl, p. 16. Falconid^. F. subbuteo. Hobby, p. i8. Gy paetus barbatus [No English name], p. 128. Haliaetus albicilla. Egle or Erne. G. Arn^ Adler^ p. 30. Milvus ater. [No English name], p. 116. M. ictinus. Glede, Puttok, or Kyte. G. Weye., p. 116. Tinnunculus alaudarius. Kastrel, Kistrel, or Steingall, p. 166. Fringillid^. Carduelis elegans. Goldfinche. G. Disteljinck., Stigelitz., pp. 40, 50. C. spinus. Siskin. G. Zeysich., Engelchen., p. 108 (cf. p. 50). Emberiza citrinella. Yelowham, Yovvlryng. G. Geelgorst, p. 106. £. miliaria. Bunting. G. Gerst- hammer., pp. 134, 158. E. schoeniclus. Rede Sparrow. G. Reydt Muss^ pp. 102, 134. Fringilla ccelebs. Chaffinche, Sheld-appel, Spink. G. Buch- Jink., p. 72. F. montifringilla. Bramlyng. G. Rowert, p. 72. Ligurinus chloris. Grenefinche. G. Kirsjincke., pp. 104, 106. Linota cannabina'^ Linot. G. Flasfinc., pp. 50, 158. Passer do^nesticus. Sparrow. G. Musche, Spdtz^ Liiningk.^ Sax. Sperlingk., p. 132. Pyrrhula europcea. Bulfinche. G. Bl'ddtjinck., p. 160. Serinus canarius. Canary Bird, p. 108. Gruid^. Grus connnunis. Crane. G. Krdn., Krdnich., pp. 94, 96. Bank Martnet. G. Uber Swalbe, Speiren., p, 102. Himndo rustica. Swallowe. G. Schwalb., Sax. Swale., pp. 96, 100, 102. iBlDiDiE. Comatibis eremita. [Redcheeked Ibis]. G. Waltrap^ pp. 92, 94. Laniid^. Lanius excubitor. Schric, Shrike, or Nyn Murder. G. Nuin Murder, Neun Murder, pp. 116, 118, 168. Lanius minort [No English name], p. 168. Laridae. Hydro chelidon 7tigra. Stern, p. 78. Larus [Grey Gull.] Se Cob or See Gell, p. 78. L. sp.? [White Gull] White Semaw. Se Cob or Seegell. G. Wyss mewe, pp. 74, 78. L. 7'idibundus. White Semaw with a blak cop, pp. 74, 76. Meropid^e. Merops apiaster. [No English name], p. 112. Motacillid^. a 7tthus pj'atensis. Titlyng, p. 68. Motacilla lugubris or M. alba. Wagtale. G. Wasser Steltz, Quikstertz, p. 64. OrioliDvE. 07‘iolus galbula. Wit- wol. G. Witwol, Weidwail, Kerse7irife, pp. 148, 172, 174. Otidid^. Otis tarda. Bistard or Bustard. G. Trap or Trap Ga7tss, pp. 130, 166. PANDlONiDiE. Pandio7t haliaetus. Osprey. G. Vishdrn, pp. 34, 36. PARlDiE. Parus coeruleus. Non. Paride. P. major. Great Tit- mous, or Great Oxei. G. Kol- meyse.^ p. 130. P. palustris or P. ater. Less Titmous. G. Meelmeyse., p. 130. Phalacrocoracid^. Phalacrocorax carbo. Cormorant. G. Ducher., p. no. P. graculus t Douker (pt), Loun, Duclier p. 176. Phasianid^. Attagen [possibly Bonasa sylvesBis., the Hazel Grouse], pp. 42, 44. Gallus ferrugineus {domesticus). Cok, Hen. G. Hdn^ Hen.^ Sax. Hon, p. 82. Numida meleagris. [No English name?] Kok of Inde? pp. 82, 86, 140. Pavo cristakis. Pecok. G. Pffaw, Sax. Pageliin, p. 136. Perdix cinerea. Pertrige. G. Veit hon, Raphbn, p. 138. Phasianus colchicus. Phesan. G. Fasa?tt, Fasian, p. 140. Phcenix. [No English name], p. 140. PiciDi^:. Dendrocofus major t Specht, or Wodspecht. G. Elsterspecht, pp. 146, 148. Gecinus viridis. He whole, Hu- hol, Raynbird ? G. Gru7ispecht, pp. 88, 112, 114, 146, 148. lynx torquilla. [No English name], pp. 146, 148. Picus martins. [No English name]. G. Craspecht, p. 148. PLATALEiDiE. Platalea leucorodia. Shovelard. G. Lefler, L'dffel Ganss, pp. 38, 150. PODICIPEDID^. Podicipes minor, Douker (pt), Ducher (pt), p. 176. Procellariid^. Puffinus sp. ? Bird of Diomede, p. 70. PSITTACID^. Parrot. Popinjay. G. Papegay, p. 150. Ralli DiE. Crex prate7isis. Daker Hen, Rale (?) G. Schryk, Scrica, pp. 70, 128, 140. Ftilica 7tigra. Cout, pp. 32, 76. Gallinula chlo7'op7is. Mot Hen or Water Hen. G. Wasser He7i, p. 170. Porphyrio ccelestis. [No English name], p. 152. Scolopaci L»^. Actitis hypoleuca. Water Swallow. G. Stey77bisser, pp. 54, 56. Li77tosa belgica. Godwitt or Eedoa, p. 44. Scolopax 7msticula. Wodcok. G. Holtz S7tepff, pp. 42, 86. Totatius calidris. Redshanc, p. 102. SlTTID^. Sitta ccBsia. Nut-jobber. G. Nushdkker, Meyspecht, p. 162. Strigid^. Asio otus. Horn Oul. G. Ranseul, Schleier Eul, p. 130. Btibo ig7iavus. Lyke Foule. G. Schuffatiss, Schiiffel, Kautz, p. 46. Strix st7'idula (?) Owl, Howlet. G. Eul, Sax. Ule, p. 120. Struthionid^e. Struthio camelus. Oistris. G. Stratiss, p. 164. Sturnid^e. Sturn7is vulgaris. Sterlyng. G. Star, Stbr, p. 164. SuLlDiE. Sula bassa7ia. Solend Guse, p. 28. SvLViiDiE. Accentor 7nodularis (?) Hedge-sparrow, or Dike Smou- ler. G. Grass77msch,Koel777Ussh, p. 136. Daulias hiscmia. Nyghtyngall. G. Nachtgdl, p. 108. Sylviid^. Erithaciis rtibecttla. Robin Redbreste. G. Rotbrust^ Rotkelchen^ p. 154. Pratincola rubicola. Stonchatter or Mortetter. G. Klein Brach- vogelchen^ p. 158. Reg2ilns cristatus[No English name.] G. Gold Hendlin^ pp. 154, 168. Ruticillaphoenicurus. Rede Tale. G. Rotstertz, p. j 54. Saxicola oeiiantlie. Arlyng, Clot- burd, Smatche or Steinchek. G. Breckvogel.) p. 52. Sylvia atricapilla ip). [No English name.] G. Grasmuklen, p. 44. N". rufa ? Lingett. G. Graes- musch.^ Grassinusch, p. m, [cf. p. 136]. Tetraonid^e. Coturnix co7ninu- nis. Quale. G. Wachtel., p. 62. Lagopus 7nutus. [No English name], p. 104. L. scotictis. (?) Morhen, p. 86. Tetrao tetrix. [No English name], p. 42. Troglodytid^E. Troglodytes parvulus. Wren. G. Kuningsgen, Zaunkimingk., p. 152. Turdid^. Ttirdtis iliacus^ 7nu- sicus, viscivonts. Thrusche, Thrushe, Throssel, Mavis, or Wyngthrushe. G. Drossel^ Durstet Weingaerdsvoegel., pp. 170, 172. T. merula. Blak Osel or Blak- byrd. G. A/^r/, Anisel., p. ii4> T. pila7'is. Feldfare or Feldefare. G. Krammesvbgel. Wachholter- pp. 58, 170. [Confounded with Mistletoe Thrush?] UPUPiDiE. Upupa epops. Howpe. G. Houp., Widhopff., p. 174. VULTURID^. Vultur sp. G. Geyr.^ p. 176. Geir. A V I V M PRAECIPV ARVM, QVARVM APVD PLINIVM ET ARI- ftotelem mentio eft, breuis & fuccinfta hiftoria. Ex optimis quihufque fcripto- ribus contexta^ fcholio illu Jlrata & au5ia. Adie^iis nominibus Gracis^ Germanicis lA Britannicis. Per Dn. Guilielmum Eurnerum., artium Me- dicince doPtorem. Colonice excudebat loan. Gymnicus, Anno M. D. XLIIII. y P ■ V -I % :1 n - > <4‘ * t > ■< <«> I 'K i if: i'*i DE HISTORIA AVIUM. [p- 3] Illuftriffimo VValliae principi, Eduuardo filio hseredi, fereniffimi & potentif- fimi Henrici VIII. regis Angliae, Franciae, & Hiberniae, Guilielmus Turnerus S. P. D. 3ENS admodum, &, fi quid ego intel- (illuftriffime princeps) neceffaria primis regij prophetae fuit admonitio, qua reges, principes & indices terrae, ut intelligerent, & eruditionem confequerentur, admonuit. Nam ut fummus ille reru architedlus Deus optimus maximuscj^, caput fuper omnes reliquas corporis partes in homine, qui perfedliffimq in fe [p. 4] Reipublicae fimulachrum gerit, collocauit, & omnes quinq$ fenfus fimul in eo repofuit, ut pro reliquis omnibus mebris (quibus folus tadlus eft conceffus) uideret, audiret, guftaret & odoret, & eorum faluti confuleret: ita principem Reipublic^, corpori ex multis membris conflato, ueluti caput praefecit, ut prudentia, eruditione, & fenfibus fuis non tam exterioribus, qua interioribus, totius Reipublicae commodis &: faluti profpiceret. In pedibus uifum, in tibijs auditum, in manibus olfadlum, in brachijs odoratum nemo requirit: fed haec omnia in capite requiruntur. To the most illustrious Prince of Wales, Edward, son and heir of the most serene and mighty Henry VIII, King of England, France and Ireland, William Turner wishes long life and health. Exceeding wise, and if I understand aright, necessary above all things, most illustrious Prince, was the warning of the royal prophet, in which he admonished kings, princes, and judges of the earth that they should have understanding and seek learning. For, as that architect supreme of the universe, God most good and great, placed the head above all the remaining parts of the body in man, who in himself shews forth the image of a most perfect State, and stored up in it all the five senses at once, that it should see, hear, taste, and smell for all the remaining members (to which touch alone has been allowed), and should consult for their well-being; so he hath set the Prince, as it were a head, over the State, a body welded together of many members, that he should provide for the advantage and well-being of the whole State by his wisdom, learning and senses, not so much external as internal. No one demands sight in the feet, hearing in the legs, smelP in the hands, or smell in the arms ; but all these things are necessary in the head. ^ This should probably be “taste” (gustum). Quum igitur tot fenfus in capite uni tantu corpori pr^fefto requirantur: quot fenfus, quantum fapientiae & eruditionis ab eo capite exi- [p. 5] guntur, cui plus quam trecentorum milium corporum praefeftura committitur ? Quod fi quis forfan refpondeat, non in principe, fed in ijs folis, qui illi a confilijs funt, eruditionem & prudentiam requiri : hunc ego dignum cenfere, qui pro tali refponfo, omnibus fenfibus, excepto tadtu, orbatus in media fylua uepribus & fpinis denfa, caueis & foffis formidabili, quatuor ducibus comitatus ftatueretur, nobis difturus, nu proprijs malit uti fenfibus an alienis ? & num tutius illi fit, ducum fuorum incertorum fenfibus, an proprijs duci ? & qua ratione caecus & furdus odoratu & guftu deftitutus ipfe, C9ci'ne an ui- detes fui fmt duces, dignofcere poffit ? In confiliarijs fummam prudentiam & erii- [p. 6] ditionem non uulgarem requiri, non diffiteor: uerum non in ijs folis, nam fi illi, qui principi funt a confilijs, ad tempus bene confulant, & poftea in ipfius perniciem male fuadeant, ut Abfaloni Achitofelem feciffe legimus: quomodo perniciofum illorum confiliu ipfe fubodorabitur & depraehendet, nifi eruditione & prudentia con- filiarios fuos aut fuperet, aut faltem ^quet ? Quare no in confiliarijs tantum, fed in principe ipfo eruditio & fapietia requiruntur. Non de- funt, qui fatis effe principi exiftimant, quo caete- ris mortalibus praeftet, fi regio uefhitu, diuitijs, copijs, fcite pulfando teftudinem, & tela dextre uibrando, fubditis fuis pr^luceat: uerum fortif- [p. 7] fimi quiq$ & fapientiffimi reges longe diuerfum Inasmuch therefore as so many senses are requisite in the head, which is set over one body alone, how many senses and what a wealth of wisdom and learning are demanded from that head, to whom more than three hundred thousand bodies are given in charge ? But if any should chance to answer that learning and wisdom are needed not in the Prince, but only in those who are his councillors, I should consider it fitting that he for such a reply should be set, accompanied by four guides, in the midst of a wood tangled with briers and thorns, and dangerous with its pits and ditches, deprived of all his senses, except that of touch, and should tell us whether he preferred to use his own senses or those of others : or whether it would be safer for him to be led by the senses of his doubting guides or by his own ; and in what way he, being blind and deaf, and destitute of smell and taste, could determine whether his guides were blind or able to see. I fail not to confess that the highest wisdom, and learning of no common sort, are requisite in councillors, but not in them alone; for if they who are the advisers of the Prince, give good counsel for the time, and afterwards prompt him ill to his destruction, as we read that Achitofel did in the case of Absalom, how shall he smell out and detect their fatal advice, unless he either excels or at least equals his councillors in learning and wisdom t Wherefore not only in councillors but in the Prince himself are learning and wisdom requisite. There are not wanting those who think it enough for a Prince, as matters in which he should surpass other mortals, if he outshines his subjects in royal garb, in riches, in resources, in cunningly striking the lyre, and in skilfully throwing the spear; but all the bravest and wisest kings have fenferunt. Na Mithridates rex Poti & Bithyni^, fe regnorum fuorum caput effe intelliges, et tot corporibus, quot prqerat, unica uernacula fuam lingua minime fufficere, uiginti duas linguas getium, quas fub ditione fua habuit, ita perfedle didicit & percalluit, ut uiginti illarum gentium uiris fine interprete prompte refponde- rit, & fua cuique lingua non fecus atque gentilis fuiffet, locutus fuerit. Ide rerum abditas naturas ita perueftigauit, & in re medica ita foeliciter fuit uerfatus, ut aduerfus lethalia uenena antidotum, quod hodie etiamnum ab eo nomen fortitum, Mithridatium appellatur, fuo Marte inuenerit. Alexander ille Macedonum rex, tam [p. 8] naturae quam fortunae dotibus iure fufpici- endus, tanto bonarum artium & philofophiae potiffimum ftudio flagrauit, ut etia in zelotypiam quandam literariam inciderit. Nam is cum omnem prope Afiam armis & exercitu teneret, ubi primu Ariftotelem libros fuos de auscultatione phyfica inuulgaffe acceperat, in tantis negocijs cum Ariftotele, miffa ftatim epiftola de editis libris, his uerbis expoftulabat: Quod difciplinas axpoa^aart/ca? edidifti, non redte fe- cifti. nam qua alia re caeteris praefhare poterimus, fi ea, quae abs te accepimus, omnium pror- fus fuerint communia ? Quippe ego dodtrina anteire malim, quam copijs atq$ opulentijs. Haec Alexander. Diuino approbatus oraculo rex ille Dauid, thought quite differently. For Mithridates, king of Pontus and Bithynia, understanding that he was the head of his domains, and that his native tongue alone was by no means sufficient for the numerous bodies, over which he reigned, learned so perfectly and understood so thoroughly the twenty-two tongues^ of the nations, which he had under his sway, that he gave immediate answers to twenty men of those nations without an interpreter, and spoke to each in his own tongue just as if it had been native to him. He also so thoroughly traced out the hidden natures of things, and occupied himself to such good purpose in the science of medicine, that he discovered by his own exertions an antidote to deadly poisons, which even to-day is called Mithridatium, a name derived from him. The great Alexander, king of the Macedonians, rightly renowned as much for the gifts of nature as for those of fortune, burned with so great a zeal for the noble arts, and philosophy in particular, that he even descended to a sort of literary jealousy. For though he was holding almost all Asia by force of arms and his troops, when first he heard that Aristotle had made public his books ‘ De Auscultatione Physica,’ in the midst of such great concerns he expostulated with Aristotle in the following words, a letter having been at once sent off concerning the publication of the books: “In that you have published your teachings called aKpoafiaTiKal you have not done rightly; for in what other thing shall I be able to excel the rest, if those things, which I have heard from you, become henceforth the common property of all ? For I should prefer to stand first in learning rather than in resources and wealth.” Thus said Alexander. The great king David, approved by the voice of 1 ‘Duas’ is perhaps a misprint for ‘duarum.’ [p. 9] qui & propheta fuit diuino numine adflatus, atqj ideo qd regi maxime neceffariu foret, cogno- fcens, ante omnia literas, nempe facras expetiuit, ut fibi teperare non potuerit, quin diceret, Bene- didlus es domine, doce me iuftificationes tuas, in uia mandatoru tuoru dele6latus fum, ficut in omnibus diuitijs : in mandatis tuis exercebor, & confiderabo uias tuas. Reuela oculos meos, & confiderabo mirabilia de lege tua. Bonitate & difciplina & fcientiam doce me : ego autem in toto corde meo fcrutabor mandata tua. Nifi quod lex tua meditatio mea eft, tunc forte perif- fem in humilitate mea. Quam dulcia faucibus meis eloquia tua, fuper mei ori meo. Bonum mihi lex oris tui fuper milia auri & argeti. [p- 10] Lucerna pedibus meis uerbum tuum, & lumen femitis meis. Declaratio fermonum tuorum illuminat, & intelledtum dat paruulis. Hadtenus rex Dauid, & pace & bello omnium regum il- luftriffimus. Rex Solomon huius filius, omniu, quos un- qua terra genuit, fapientifs. cuius unius autori- tati plus tribuendum eft, quam fexcentis adulatoribus diuerfum fuadetibus, cum totius orbis conditor & omnium bonorum largitor Deus pater, illi, quod fibi optimum, & ex ufu fuo maxime fore iudicaret, ultro offerret, & pofcenti mox fe daturu promitteret, ad hunc modum, ut diuinae literae teftantur, refpondit. Nunc domine Deus, tu me regnare fecifti feruum tuum pro [p- 11] Dauide patre meo, ego autem fum puer par- uulus, & ignorans ingreffu, & introitu meu : & feruus tuus in medio eft populi, quem elegifti. God, who was moreover a prophet filled with divine inspiration, and therefore well aware of what was especially necessary for a king, sought before all things learning, and that of course divine, so that he was unable to restrain himself from saying “ Blessed art thou, O Lord, teach me thy righteousness, I have delighted in the way of thy commandments, as in all riches: in thy statutes will I exercise myself, and I will consider thy ways. Open thou mine eyes, and I will consider the wonderful things of thy law. Teach me goodness and instruction and learning; but with my whole heart will I examine thy commandments. Unless thy law had been my meditation, then should I perchance have perished in my low estate. How sweet are thy sayings to my mouth, better than honey to my lips. The law of thy mouth is a good to me beyond thousands of gold and silver. Thy word is a lantern unto my feet, and a light unto my paths. The telling of thy discourses giveth light and understanding to babes.” Thus far king David, the most illustrious of all kings both in peace and war. King Solomon, his son, the wisest of all that earth ever bore, to whose single authority more weight is to be given than to six hundred flatterers persuading to a different course, when God the Father, maker of all the world and giver of all good things, of his own accord offered to him what he should judge to be best for himself and for his greatest advantage, and promised that he would grant it at once on his request, replied in this manner, as the Scriptures testify. “ Now, O Lord God, thou hast made me, thy servant, to reign in the room of David my father, but I am a little child, and know not my coming in and entering; and thy servant is in the midst of the people whom thou hast chosen, an in- populi infiniti, qui numerari & fupputari non poteft pr^ multitudine. Dabis ergo feruo tuo cor docile, ut populum tuum iudicare poffit, & difcernere inter bonum & malum : quis enim poteft iudicare populum iftum, populum tuum hunc multum ? Huc ufq^ Solomon, qui in phi- lofophia tam diuina quam humana ita non multis poft annis profecit, ut de ftirpibus a cedro ufq$ ad hiffopum difputauerit, & de beftijs, uolucribus, reptilibus, & pifcibus differuerit. Quare, prudentiftimi quique principes, & [p. 12] fortiftimi, no fatis habebant, fubditos fuos di- uitijs, honoribus, ueftitu, inceffu, & bellica gloria excellere, nifi literis, linguis, philofophia tam diuina quam humana infuper multum fupera- rent, & a tergo relinqueret. Quod pater tuus omnium regum, qui hodie uiuunt, eruditiffimus, fatis ut regem tantum decet, intelligens, & cui Reipub. gubernaculum committitur, quam necef- faria literae & philofophia fmt, prudenter fecum perpendens, liberos fuos femper eruditiffimis quibufque praeceptoribus commifit. Duci enim Richmundiae, piae memoriae, fratri tuo Geor- gium Folberium praeceptore olim meum, uirum infigniter doftum, et mirum redte inftituendae iuuentutis artificem, & tibi nuc uirum lonee [p- 13] doftiffimum (uti audio) praefecit. Qua de caufa, illuftriffime & optime princeps, fapietiffimorum & fortiffmiorum regum exempla fecutus, atq^ potentiffimi & eruditiffimi patris tui confilio obtemperans, qui te ad meliores imbibendas literas, nunquam non inuitat, incitat & hortatur, dum aetas tua adhuc tenera numerable people, a people which cannot be numbered or counted for their multitude. Thou shalt give therefore to thy servant a heart that may be taught, that he may be able to judge thy people, and to discern between good and evil: for who is able to judge this people, this great people of thine ?” Thus far spoke Solomon, who not many years afterwards so excelled in philosophy both divine and human that he disserted about plants from the cedar even to the hyssop, and discoursed of beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes. Wherefore all the most wise and brave Princes have not considered it sufficient to surpass their subjects in riches, honours, garb, gait, and warlike glory, unless beyond this they excelled them far in learning, tongues, and philosophy both divine and human, and left them in the rear. And this your father, the most learned of all the kings who are alive at the present day, well understanding, as becomes so great a king, and one to whom the helm of the State is entrusted, wisely pondering in his mind how necessary learning and philosophy are, always committed his children to the care of the most learned of instructors. For over your brother the Duke of Richmond, of pious memory, he set Georgius Folberius, once my tutor, a man of remarkable learning, and a wondrous handicraftsman for rightly instructing youth, and now over you (as I hear) a man by far the most learned of all. Wherefore, most illustrious and worthy Prince, following the steps of the wisest and bravest kings, and yielding to the advice of your most powerful and learned father, who so constantly invites you to the draught of superior learning, spurs you on, and exhorts you, while your years are yet tender and eft, & literaru capaciffima, omne genus bonarum literarum obuijs ulnis amplectere, difce, & imbibe, & exantlati in bonas literas laboris olim te minime poenitebit. Sed ut ad propofitam metam minori cum negocio poffis peruenire, libellum De hiftoria auium, in quo Latinis nominibus Graeca, Germanica & Britanica in [p. 14] gratiam tuam appofui, ex Ariftotele & Plinio, & optimis quibusq$ fcriptoribus contexui. Hunc ego nominis tui celebritati dedico, & dono : etia atq$ etia te obteftans, ut hoc meum qualecunqj munufculum aequi bonPq? confulas. Quod fi te fadlurum intellexero, & hunc libellum figuris & auium moribus, & medicinis audlum, & de herbis alium etiam librum, breui, uolente Deo, in lucem emittam. Vale. Dominus lefus te nobis fandliffimis moribus inftitutum, & optimis literis imbutum, quam diu- tiffime inculumem conferuet. Coloniae 5. Idus Februarij, Anno M.D.XLIIII. most amenable to learning, embrace with open arms every kind of noble literature, learn and drink it in, and hereafter you will surely not repent of the labour expended upon this noble literature. But that you may be able to reach with less trouble the goal that is laid before you I have compiled from Aristotle and Pliny and all the best writers this little book on ‘ The History of Birds,’ in which I have placed for your pleasure the Greek, German, and British names side by side with the Latin. This I dedicate and offer to the glory of your name : again and again praying you to receive this little gift, such as it is, with fair and favourable consideration. And if I understand that you will do this, I will shortly, God willing, bring to the light of day a further edition of this little book with figures of the birds, their habits, and curative properties, as well as another book on plants. Farewell. May the Lord Jesus preserve you as long as possible unharmed to us, trained in most holy ways and filled with the best of learning. Cullen [Cologne]. February 9th, 1544. [p-15] De decem generibus Accipitrum. Aristoteles \ Buteo. Aefalo. Circus. Perese Fringillarij. Rubetarij. [p. 16] Accipitrum genus pr^cipuum Buteo efh, Triorcha^ a numero teftium nuncupatus : fecundum aefalo, tertium circus. Stellaris autem, palumbarius, & pernix^ differunt. Appellantur fubuteones, qui latiores^ funt: alij percae & fringillarij uocantur : alij laeues® & rubetarij, qui abunde uiuunt^ atque humiuolq funt. Genera non pauciora quam decem effe accipitrum aliqui prodiderunt, quae modo quoq? ue- nandi^ inter fe diffident. Alij enim columbam. humi confidentem, rapiunt, uolantem non appetunt : alij fuper arborem, aut tale quid con- fcendentem, uenantur : fm humi est, aut uolat, non inuadunt. Alij neq? humi, neq? in fublimi manente, adgrediutur, fed uolantem capere conantur. Fertur etiam a columbis quodq? ac- cipitru genus cognofei. Itaqj cum accipiter prouolat, fi fublimipeta eft, manent quo confti- terunt loco : fed fi humipeta qui prouolat, eft, non manet, fed continuo auolant. 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 128—130. ^ Aristotle has simply Kpano-ros pev 6 rpi6pxr]S. ^ Other readings are Trrepv'is, rrepvrjs, TVTepvqs. ^ Instead of TrXarvTepoL, some texts have TrXarvTrTepoi, which would make better sense and mean ‘broad-winged.’ ^ Xelot, or according to another text eXeiot. ® The word ev^iayraroL here, and corresponding expressions throughout the passages quoted in this book, might possibly mean that the birds in question have no particular faults, or are of ordinary respectability. Gaza, however, followed as usual by Turner, seems to have interpreted the word rightly here. ^ These three words are not found in Aristotle. Of the ten kinds of Accipitres. Aristotle. The chief kind of Accipitres is Buteo, which from the number of its testicles is named Triorcha, yE^salo is the second, Circus is the third. Again Stellaris, Palumbarius, and Pernix differ. Those which have more breadth are called Subuteones ; other kinds are named Percae and Fringillarii; others Laeves and Rubetarii, which get their living most easily, and fly near to the ground. Some have asserted that there are no fewer than ten kinds of the Accipitres which differ from each other in their several modes of hunting. For some sorts seize a Dove when sitting on the ground, but do not touch one flying ; others seek their prey when perched upon a tree, or such like, but if it be on the ground or flying do not attack it. And others seize it neither on the ground, nor when resting aloft, but strive to catch it flying. Moreover it is said that each kind of Accipitres is recognised by Doves. So, when the Accipiter comes forth, if it be such as hunts on high, they stay where they have settled, but, if that which comes be such as takes them on the ground, they stay not, but forthwith fly off. Circus, t pecuarie Buteo. Cymindis. [p. I Buteo. Aefalo. i6 Accipitres Plinius^ Accipitrum genera fedecim inuenimus. Ex ijs circon claudum altero pede, profperrimi augurij nuptialibus negocijs, & f pecuniariae rei^ Triorchen a numero teftiu, cui principatum in augurijs Phoemone dedit: buteone hunc appellant Rom. Aefalona Graeci uocant, qui folus omni tepore apparet. Caeteri hyeme abeunt. Nocturnus accipiter cymindis uocatur, rarus etiam in fyluis, interdiu minus cernens : bellum internecinum cum aquila gerit: cohae- rentes4j faepe praehenduntur. Haec Plinius. Quanquam A riftoteles decem effe accipitrum genera tradat, & Plinius fedecim: neuter tamen horum heee ita diftinxit genera, & defcripfit, ut procliue fit ledlori fuum cuique peculiare nomen ex illorum prcefcriptis imponere. Quare a me nemo horum exadlam differentiam, (S’ cuiufque nomen Britannicum aut Germanicum cum Latino df Greeeo coniundlum, lure poterit exigere. Ego tamen, quod nomen Britannicum, ciiiqi Latino imponedum effe cenfeo, lePtorem minime celabo. Buteo TpLopgTj^^ Greece diPlus, Anglorum busharda efl, nifi fallar: nam miluo magnitudine cequiparatur, femperq\ ipfc cernitur, qualem Arifloteles oPtauo libro de hiftoria animalium buteonem defcribit. EiGciKcsiv, quoniam luxta Plinij fententiam omni tempore apparet, (S’ inter minores accipitres fola merlina fiue fmerla, femper adpareat, mihi Anglorum merlina, (S’ Germanor. fmerla effe uidetur. 1 p[ist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. viii. 2 If the reading pecuariae is accepted, the meaning would appear to be ‘ for cattle breeding.’ Accipitres Pliny. Of Accipitres we have found sixteen kinds. Circus among them, halting in a foot, of lucky omen in nuptial affairs and money business. Triorches next, to which Phoemone^ gave the foremost place in auspices, named from the number of its testicles : the Romans call it Buteo and the Greeks y^salon : it is the only kind which may be seen at every time. The rest leave us in winter. An Accipiter that flies by night is called Cymindis ; it is rarely found in woodlands, in the day it scarce can see : it wages deadly warfare with the Aquila, and they are often captured clinging to each other. So far Pliny. Though Aristotle may set forth that there are ten kinds of Accipitres, and Pliny that there are sixteen, yet neither of them has distinguished or described the kinds so that it may be easy for a reader to apply to each its proper name from their accounts. So no one can in fairness claim from me their exact difference, nor yet the British or the German name of each, together with the Latin or the Greek equivalent. I will, however, surely not conceal from you, my reader, what I think to be the British name, and to which Latin name it ought to be applied. Buteo, called in Greek rpt6p^7]<;, if I do not err, is the Buzzard of the English, for it is compared with Milvus as to size; moreover it is seen at all times, and is such a bird as Aristotle makes his Buteo in the eighth book of the ‘ History of Animals.’ AlaaXcov, since in Pliny’s judgment it appears at every season, and among the smaller Hawks the Merlin or the Smerl alone seems to appear^ at all times, is, I think, the Merlin of the English and Smerl of the Germans. ^ Phoemone, called ‘Daughter of Apollo,’ was a priestess at Delphi. (See Pliny HzsL Nat. ed. Hardouin : Lipsiae, 1791, Index Auctorum, p. 340.) This seems to be the force of the subjunctive here, if it is not an oversight. T. 2 [p- 18] Palumba- rius. Fringilla- rius. Rubetarius. Subbuteo. AccipitreM paliimbariu'in tdeo Angloriim fparhau- cani^ & Germanorum fperuuerum effe puto^ quod palumbes^ columbos^ perdices df grandiufculas aues infe- quatur. Fringillarium Anglorum hobbid effe conijcio. Eft autem hobbia accipiter minimus, colons ccBteris nigrioris. In capite duos habet nigerrimos in pallido neuos. Galeritas fringillas plerumq^ captat, in excelfs arboribus nidulatur, df hyeme nufquam cernitur. Rubetarium effe credo accipitrem illum, quem Angli hen harroer nominant. Porro ille apud noftros a dilaniandis gallinis nomen habet. Palumbarium magnitudine fuperat, df coloris efl cinerij. Humi fedentes aues in agris, & gallinas in oppidis & pagis repente adoritur. Prceda frujlratus, tacitus difcedit, nec unquam fecundum facit infultum. Hic per humum omnium uolat maxime. Subbuteonem effe puto, quem Angli migtalum appellant, ab albo circulo, qui caudam circuit. Colore efl medio inter fuluum df nigru, buteone paulo minor, fed multo agilior. Prcedam eodem modo, quo f up enor captat. [p. 19] DE ALCEDONE. AXkvcov, alcedo, Anglice the kynges fifslier, Germanice ei^uoget. Aristoteles^ Alcedo non multo amplior paffere est, colore tum uiridi, tum coeruleo, tum etiam leuiter purpureo infignis: uidelicet non particulatim colore ita diftindla, fed ex indifcreto uarie refulgens corpore toto & alis & collo, roftrum fubuiride, longum & tenue. Alcedonum ^ quo- 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 85. 2 Hist. An. Bk viii. 47. The Accipiter palumbarius^ I take to be the Sparrow- Hawk of the English and the Sperwer of the Germans, since it preys on Doves, Pigeons, and Partridges and the bigger sorts of birds. The Fringillarius I guess to be the Hobby of the English. Now the Hobby is a very little Hawk of darker colour than the other kinds. It has upon the head two spots of deep black on a lighter ground. It catches for the most part Larks and Finches, nests on lofty trees, and is not seen in winter anywhere. The Rubetarius I think to be that Hawk which English people name Hen-Harrier. Further it gets this name among our countrymen from butchering their fowls. It exceeds the Palumbarius in size, and is in colour ashen. It suddenly strikes birds when sitting in the fields upon the ground, as well as fowls in towns and villages. Baulked of its prey it steals off silently, nor does it ever make a second swoop. It flies along the ground the most of all. The Subbuteo I think to be that Hawk which Englishmen call Ringtail from the ring of white that reaches round the tail. In colour it is midway from fulvous to black ; it is a little smaller than the Buteo, but much more active. It catches prey in the same manner as the bird above. Of the Alcedo. 'AXkvwv, alcedo, in English the kynges fisher, in German eyn eissvogel. Aristotle. The Alcedo, not much larger than the Passer, is remarkable for being in its colour green and blue, and even slightly purple, not, that is to say, in separate parts, as if it had the colour perfectly distinct, but variably shining over every part alike of the whole body, with the wings and head. The beak is greenish, and is long and thin. The tribe of 1 Later authors are probably more correct in applying this name to the Goshawk, which suits even Turner’s account better. 2—2 Alcedo que genus aquas adamat, quod duplex eft; alterum uocale, harundinibus infidens, alterum mutum, quod ampliore corpore eft . utrique dor- fum coeruleum. Sed alcedo apud mare quoque uerfatur. Plinius \ Ipfa auis paulo amplior pafcere^ colore [p. 20] cyaneo, ex parte maiore, tantum purpureis & candidis admixtis pennis, collo gracili ac procero. Alterum genus earum, magnitudine dif- tinguitur, & cantu. Minores in harundinetis canunt. Halcyonem uidere rariffimu eft, nec nifi Vergiliarum occafu, & circa folftitia, bru- mamMe, naue aliquando circumuolata, ftatim in latebras abeuntem. Foetificant bruma, qui dies Halcionides uocatur, placido mari per eos & nauigabili, Siculo maxime. In reliquis partibus eft quidem mitius pelagus. Siculu utiqj trafta- bile. Faciunt autem feptem ante brumam diebus nidos, & totidem fequentibus pariut. Nidi earum admirationem habent, pilae figura paulu eminente, ore perquam angufto, grandium [p. 21] fpongiarum hmilitudine, ferro intercidi non queunt, frangunturcjj idtu ualido, ut fpuma arida maris. Nec unde confingantur inuenitur. Putant ex fpinis aculeatis, pifcibus enim uiuunt. Subeunt & in amnes. Pariunt oua quina. 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xxxii. 2 Lege ‘passere.’ A Ice do Kingfishers, of which there are two sorts, is fond of watersides : one is a vocal bird, which sits on reeds, the other, which is of a larger size, is mute. The back is blue in both. The Kingfisher, however, also haunts the sea. Pliny. This bird is little bigger than the Passer, for the most part blue in colour, with the wings alone of purple mixed with white, and with a long and slender neck. Each of the two kinds may be distinguished by its size and voice. The lesser sing in reed-beds. It is very rare to see the Halcyon, and this occurs only towards the setting of the Pleiades and near the solstice or in winter-time, when, after circling round the ship awhile, it hurriedly departs again to its retreat. They breed in winter, at the season called the Halcyon days^ wherein the sea is calm and fit for navigation, the Sicilian sea particularly so. Elsewhere indeed the ocean is less boisterous. The Sicilian is certainly gentle enough. Now these birds build their nests in the seven days before the winter solstice, and hatch out their young in the seven following. Their nests compel our wonder, of a ball-like shape, with a small jutting part and very narrow hole, like sponges of great size ; they cannot be cut open with an iron tool, but may be broken by a vigorous blow, as dry sea-foam^ may be. It is not known of what these are composed. Some think of pointed bones, since the birds live on fish. They also dive in rivers, and lay five eggs each. 1 For the origin of this ancient tradition, the reader may be referred to any work dealing with Greek mythology. 2 By ‘dry sea-foam’ Pliny probably meant masses of whelks’ eggs. Prceter hcBc duo ab Arijiotele & Plinio defcripta genera, aue7n noui, qucE Ji alcedomcm generibus non Jit adfcribenda, fub quo genere contineatur, prorfus nefcio. Ea Ji^irno paidb minor eji, corpore toto nigro, excepto uentre albo. Caudam habet breuiufculam, rojirum alcedone paido breuius. Ante uolatum, alcedonis more crebro nutat, & in uolatu gemit: uoce alcedone ita refert, ut, nifi uideas, alcedonem effe iurares: in ripis fluminum, non procid d mari uidi, alias nufquam. pif- ciculis uidlitat ut fuperiora alcedonum genera. Nidum huius nunquam uidi. Morpetenfes, apud quos auem a uuater uidi, cornicem uocant aquaticam. crauu. DE ANATE. N^rra, anas, Anglice a duck, Germanice e^n enbt. Plinius^ [p. 22] Anates folae, quae'que funt eiufdem generis, in fublime fefe protinus tollunt, atqj e ueftigio coelum petunt, & hoc etiam ex aqua. DE ANSERE. S.rjv, anfer, Anglice a gofe, Germanice ganf. Arifloteles fomul & Plinius duo prcecipua anferum genera faciunt: hic anferem in maiorem & minorem, ille in domitu et feru diuidens. Sed Plin. prcBter hcec duo anferum prcecipua genera, Penelopes'^ et chenalopeces, ut unus textus habet, &, ut alius habet, chenalopeces, & chenerotes anferini effe generis tradit. Prior lePlio fic habet, 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxviii. 2 Judging from p. 148 of the original work the singular of this word is ‘ Penelops,’ and it is probably by mistake that the Wigeon has been called Mareca penelope. Besides the two kinds thus described by Aristotle and Pliny I know of a bird, of which, if it should not be properly ascribed to the Kingfisher tribe, I really cannot say under what head it ought to go. It is a little smaller than a Starling, with the body wholly black, except for a white belly, and it has the tail comparatively short, the beak a little shorter than the Kingfisher. Before a flight it dips repeatedly, after the manner of the Kingfisher, and cries out as it flies ; it is so like the Kingfisher in voice that, if you did not see it, you would swear it was a Kingfisher. I have observed it on the banks of streams not far from the sea-side, but nowhere else. It lives on little fishes, like the aforesaid kinds of Kingfishers. I never saw its nest. The inhabitants of Morpeth, where I saw the bird, call it a water crawh Of the Anas. N?7TTa, anas, in English a duck, in German eyn endt. Pliny. Anates only, and birds of like kind, rise in the air at once, and make straight for the sky, and that even from the water. Of the Anser. anser, in English a goose, in German eyn ganss. Aristotle agrees with Pliny in making two chief kinds of Geese, the latter separating them into the greater and the less, the former into tame and wild. But Pliny tells us that besides these two chief kinds of Geese, there are of the Goose kind Penelopes and Chenalopeces, as one text has it, as another goes, Chenalopeces and Chenerotes. The first reading stands thus :— 1 The bird meant is undoubtedly the Water Ousel or Dipper {Cincius aquaticus)^ which still goes by the name of Water Craw in the north of England. It is curious that Turner should never have seen its nest when he was in Northumberland. Anferu generis 'funt Penelopes, & quibus lautiores epulas Britannia non nouit, chenalo- peces, anfere fere minores. Altera fic hahet: Anferini generis funt chenalopeces & quib^ lautiores epulas Britannia no nouit, chenerotes\ Pojierior le6lio mihi magis approbatur^ nam & nos una aue lociLpletat^ et penelopes anatini potiUs g [p- 23] anferini generis eritditis effe uidentur. Sed quce nam iftcE aues, & quibus nominibus apud nojirates appellantur^ dicere teiitabo. Chenalopex, ab anfere et milpe nome7z habet, & Latine a Gaza uulpanfer dicitur. Nofirates bergander. hodie bergandrum nominat, a?iate loitgior & grandior imlpaitfer efl, pedlore ruffefceitte, in aquis degit, & in ctmicidoru foueis. interdum & in excelfarum rtipium cauernis {imde forte nomeit ab A7iglofaxo7iibus, noflris patribus fortitus eff) nidificat. Niifquam alias uul- panferem uidi, nifi in Tamifi fiuuio. Aiunt tamen frequetem ej]e in infula Tenia uocata, & illic in fcrobi- bus cimiculorum nididari. Moribus admodum uul- pinis efl. nam dum teneri adhuc pulli funt, fi quis eos captare tentet, prouoluit fefe uulpanfer ante pedes captantis, quafi iam capi poffit, atq\ ita allicit ad fe capiendam hominem, eoufq\ dum pidli effugiant: tum ipfe auolat & remeat prolem. Chenerotes quce nam aues fint, pido pauciffimos hodie effe, qui nouerunt. Neq\ “ Of the Goose kind there are Penelopes and also Chenalopeces, the latter generally smaller than a Goose; and Britain knows no richer feast than these.” The second runs :— “ Of the Goose kind are Chenalopeces and Che- nerotes, Britain knows no richer feast than these.” To me the latter reading most approves itself, for it both makes us richer by one bird, and the Penelopes seem to our learned men to be of the Duck tribe rather than of the Goose. But I will try to say what these birds are and by what names they go among our countrymen. The Chena- lopex^ takes its name from the Goose and the Fox, while it is called by Gaza Vulpanser in Latin, though our people nowadays name it Berganderl It is longer than a Duck and bigger, with a ruddy breast. It lives upon the waters and in coneys’ burrows. At times it even nests in holes of lofty rocks (whence possibly the name was first allotted to it by our ancestors the Anglo-Saxons). I have nowhere else seen the Vulpanser save upon the river Thames. Nevertheless they say that it is plentiful upon the isle which is called Tenia®, and that it breeds in coneys’ burrows there. In habits it is very like a Fox, for, while the young are still of tender age, should any one attempt to capture them, the old V^ulpanser rolls upon the ground before his very feet^ as if she could be taken there and then, and thus allures the man to follow her, until the young are able to escape ; then she flies off and summons back her brood. I think that there are very few men now who know what sort of birds the 1 Turner’s bird was undoubtedly the Sheld-Drake {Tadorna cornuta\ notwithstanding the fact that the name Chenalopex has been conferred on the so-called ‘Fox-Goose’ of Africa. 2 The Sheld-Drake is still the Bargander or Bergander of some districts of England ; possibly the correct spelling should be Burgander, i.e. Burrow Duck. The word seems to have nothing to do with Berg = a mountain. ® Possibly St Mary’s, or even Coquet Island. 4 The Sheld-Drake does not usually behave thus. ego, licet Britannus, chenerotes nojlros fatis noni: na prceter duo Arijiot. genera, anferu adhuc duo genera notii in Britdnia, ad quoru neutrum fi chenerotes pertineat, chenerotes mihi penitus ignotos effe ingenue fatebor. Prior atifer d noftris hodie brdta & bernicla uocatur, & fero atifere minor efi, pedlore aliquo ufq', [p. 24] nigro. CcEtero cinerio, anferum feroru more uolat, firepit, paludes frequetat, & fegete depopulatur. Caro huius paulo infuauior efi, & diuitibus minhs appetita. Nidum berniclce, aut otium nemo uidit: nec mirum, quum fine parentis opera berniclce ad hunc modti fpontaneam habeat generatione. Quum ad certum tempus, malus nauis in mari coputruit, aut tabulce, aut antennce abiegnce, inde in principio ueluti fungi erumput: in quibus temporis progreffu, manifefias atiiu figuras cernere licebit, deinde pluma uefiitas, pofiremb uiuas & uolantes. Hoc, ne cui fabulofum efe uideatur, prceter comtine omniu gentiu littoraliu Anglice, Hibernice & Scotice, tejiimoniu Gyraldiis ille prceclarus hifioriographus qui multo fcelicius q pro fuo tempore Hibernice hifioriam confcripfit, no aliam effe berniclaru generatione teflatur. Sed, quum uulgo non fatis tutu uideretur fidere, et Gyraldo ob rei raritatem non fatis crederem, dum hcec, quce nunc fcribo, meditarer, uirum quendam, cuius mihi perfpePtiJfima integritas fidem merebatur, profefiione Theologum, natione Hibernum, nomine OSlauianu, confului num Gyraldum hac in re fide dignum cenferet f qui per ipfum iurans, quod profitebatur euangelium, refpondit, uerijfimum effe, quod de generatione huius auis Gy- [p. 25] raldus tradidit, sef, rudes adhuc aues oculis uidiffe, & manibus contreTtaffe: breuif, fi Londini menfem unum aut alterum manerem, aliquot rudes auiculas mihi aduePtas curaturu. Ifta berniclce generatio no ufq-, adeo Chenerotes are. And, though I am a Briton, I am not quite sure about our Chenerotes ; for as yet, apart from the two kinds that Aristotle gives, I know two sorts of Geese in Britain and will frankly own that, if the Chenerotes are not to belong to either of them, they are quite unknown to me. The first Goose by our people nowadays is called the Brant and Bernicle, and is a smaller bird than the Wild Goose, with the breast partly black. The rest is ashen grey. It flies, gabbles, haunts swamps, and devastates green crops, like the Wild Goose. Its flesh is somewhat strong, and is the less sought after by the rich. No one has seen the Bernicle’s nest or egg, nor is this wonderful, since Bernicles without a parent’s aid are said to have spontaneous generation in this way: When after a certain time the firwood masts or planks or yard-arms of a ship have rotted on the sea, then fungi, as it were, break out upon them first, in which in course of time one may discern evident forms of birds, which afterwards are clothed with feathers, and at last become alive and fly. Now lest this should seem fabulous to anyone, besides the common evidence of all the long-shore men of England, Ireland, and Scotland, that renowned historian Gyraldusb who composed a history of Ireland in much more happy style than could have been expected in his time, bears witness that the generation of the Bernicles is none other than this. But inasmuch as it seemed hardly safe to trust the vulgar and by reason of the rarity of the thing I did not quite credit Gyraldus, while I thought on this, of which I now am writing, I took counsel of a certain man, whose upright conduct, often proved by me, had justified my trust, a theologian by profession and an Irishman by birth, Octavian by name, whether he thought Gyraldus worthy of belief in this affair. Who, taking oath upon the very Gospel which he taught, answered that what Gyraldus had reported of the generation of this bird was absolutely true, and that with his own eyes he had beholden young, as yet but rudely formed, and also handled them, and, if I were to stay in London for a month or two, that he would take care that some growing chicks should be brought in to me. This curious generation of the Bernicle will not appear so very 1 Giraldus Cambrensis, Topographia Hiber7tica Distinctio I. cap. xv. prodigiofa illis nidebitur, qui quod A rijioteles de uolucre ephemero fcripjit, legermt. De ephimero autem Arijloteles'^ libro quinto de hijioria animalium ita fcribit. Hyppanis fluuius apud Cymerium Bofphorum fub folfhitio, defert ueluti folliculos acinis maiores, quibus quadrupedes uolucres erumpunt: quod genus animalis in poftmeridianum ^ ufque diei tempus uiuit & uolat: mox defcendente fole, macrefcit & languet®: deinde occidente, moritur, uita non ultra unum diem protradla: unde ephemerum, id efh, diarium appellatum efh. Hqc Ariftotel. Qucb fi uera funt, & tdto philofopho digna, fupe- rioris auis generationi non paritm fidei adjirtient. Alter anfier, de q2io promifi me didturu, marina 26] OLuis eji, ex uenatu pifeium uidlitans, magnitudme fuperiore anfiere paido minor: anfierem tamen twee & forma per omnia refert, nididatur in mari Seotico, in rupibus excelfis, infiidce Baffi, per antiphrafim, opinor, ditlw: nee alias ufpiam in tota Britannia. Hic tanto amore fiiws pidlos profequitur, ut eum pueris per funes in corbibus ad auferedos eos demiffis, acerrime non fine uitee pericido conflidletur. Nec fdetitio prceter- emidum efi, ex adipe htdits anferis {efi enim infigniter adtpofus) unguentum d Scotis ad mtdtos morbos utiliffi- mum fieri, qiwd cum commageno d Plinio'' celebrato, merito bonitate & remediorum nttmero potefi certare, lam quu anferum genera, licet diligentif/iuie inqtdres, apud Britannos plura inuenire non poffim, clienerotes 1 Bk V. 107. ^ IJ-e)(pL delXrjs. ^ These two words are not in the original Greek. ^ This explanation is not given by Aristotle. We have here an instance of the insertions common in old authors, which will not be noticed hereafter in each case, as being too numerous. Another instance is found with regard to ‘ Albicilla ’ (p. 30). ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xxii. marvellous to those who may have read what Aristotle wrote about the flying creature called Ephemeras. Now Aristotle writes thus of the Ephemeras in the fifth book of his History of Animals:— ‘‘The river Hyppanis^ near the Cymerian Bosphorus^ when the solstice is nigh, brings down small pouches, as it were, each larger than a grape, from which four-footed flying creatures burst; a sort of animal which lives and flies until the afternoon of the same day, but presently at the sun’s going down withers and languishes, and finally, at the sun’s setting, dies, lasting no longer than a single day, whence it is called Ephemerus, that is, the creature of a day.” Thus Aristotle writes. Now if these things are true, and worthy of the great philosopher, they will impart no little credibility as to the generation of the aforesaid bird. The second Goose, of which I promised I would speak, is a sea-bird, which lives by hunting fishes, somewhat less in size than the Goose given above ; and yet in voice and aspect it recalls the Goose in every way ; it nests within the Scottish sea, upon the lofty cliffs of the Bass Isle—so called, as I opine, by an antiphrasis^—and nowhere else in all Britain. This bird looks to its young with so much loving care, that it will fight most gallantly with lads that are let down in baskets by a rope to carry them away, not without danger of its life. Nor must we fail to mention that a salve, most valuable for many a disease, is made by Scots from the fat of this Goose (for it is wonderfully full of fat) which may deservedly rival the Commagenum vaunted much by Pliny, in its virtue and the number of its cures. Now since, though searching with the greatest care, I cannot find any more kinds of Geese among Britons, 1 Now the Bog. 2 Between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. 3 As if the derivation was from the French das = \ow. {qui ab amore mihi nomeii habere tddeiitur')^ aut ber- niclce aut Baffani auferes funt, aut mihi prorfus ignoti. DE AQVILA. aero^, aquila, Anglice an egle, Germanice ein arn, ober ein abler. Aristoteles \ Aquilarum plura funt genera. Vnum, quod [p. 27] pigargus ab albicante cauda dicitur, ac fi albi- cillam nomines, gaudet hpc planis, & lucis et oppidis. Hinnularia^ a nonnullis uocata cognomine eft. montes etiam, fyluamcjj, fuis freta uiribus, petit, reliqua genera raro plana & lucos adeunt. Pygargiis, quum fit primum aquilarum genus, Germanorum literatores turpiter errant, qui pygargum fuum trappitm faciunt, qui apud Arifiotelem tetrix, & Plinio tetrao eft, tU pofiea docebo. Pygargus Anglo- e. rtcm lingua, nifi fallar, erna uocatur. De PLANGA AUT CLANGA EX ArISTOTELEI Alterum genus magnitudine fecundnm & uiribus, clanga^ aut planga nomine, faltus & conualles, & lacus incolere folitum, cognomine anataria ^ & morphna, a macula pennae, quafi neuia'’ dixeris, cuius etiam meminit Homer. in exitu Priami \ [p. 28] Plinius ® de morphna sive planga. Morphnos, quam Homerus & percnon uocat, aliqui & plancum & anataria, fecuda magnitu- ^ Hist. A7t. Bk IX. III. 2 ve/Spo^ot'ov = fawn-slayer. 3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 112. ^ For TrXay-yos- some texts have rr'kavos. The word ‘clanga’ does not seem to be represented in the Greek. ° vr]TTo(j)6vos = duck-slayer. ® This explanation is not in Aristotle. ^ Iliad, Bk XXIV. 1. 316. ® Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. iii. the Chenerotes (which seem to me to get their name from “love”^) are either Bernicles, or the Geese of the Bass, or are decidedly unknown to me. Of the Aquila. aero?, aquila, in English an eagle, in German ein arn, or ein adler. Aristotle. Of Aquilae there are several kinds. One which is called Pygargus from its whitish tail, as though you were to name it Albicilla, loves plains, groves, and towns. For by-name it is called by certain Hin- nularia. It even seeks the mountains and the wood, relying on its might. The other kinds seldom approach the plains and groves. Now, seeing that Pygargus is the first kind of the Aquilae, the German scribblers err disgracefully, who reckon it their Trapp, which is the Tetrix in the works of Aristotle and the Tetrao of Pliny, as I shall shew afterwards. Pygargus, if I err not, in the English tongue is called an Erne. Of the Planga or Clanga, from Aristotle. Another kind, second in size and strength, by name Clanga or Planga, generally haunts glades and valleys and lakes. It has the by-name Anataria, and Morphna from the marking on the wing^ as though you should say spotted. Of this Homer makes mention in the scene of Priam’s death. Pliny on the Morphna or Planga. Morphnos, which Homer also calls Percnos, some name Plancus and Anataria, second in size and 1 A very doubtful derivation. t in deie- 6lu. t hoflem alias abtidat. [P- 29] dine & ui, huicqj uita circa lacus. Ifta circa ftagna aquaticas aues appetit mergetes fe fub- inde, donec fopitas laffatasc^J rapiat. Spedlanda dimicatio, aue ad perfugia littorum tendente, maxime fi condenfa harundo fit: aquila finde i6lu abigente ala, & cum appetit in lacus cadente, umbramcj^ fuam nanti fub aqua a littore oftendente : rurfus aue in diuerfa, & ubi minime fe credat expedlari, emergente. Haec caufa efh gregatim auibus natandi, quia plures fimul non infeftantur: refperfu pinnaru f hofhe obcaecantes. Saepe & aquilae ipfae non tollerantes pondus apprehenfum, una merguntur. Haec Plinius. Omnia, qnm Arijloteles & Plinius percno haPtenus tribiLerimt, Anglorum balbushardo conueniunt, fi /olam magnitudinem exceperis, qucE fi aha adfuerint, hic for- tafifiis non oberit, efi autem illa, quam anatariam effe conijcio, auis buteone maior & longior, neuo albo in capite, colore fufco proximo, ad ripas fluminum, flag- norum et paludium femper degens, uiuit ex uenatu anatum et gallinarum nigrarum, quas Angli coutas. nominat. Venationem hanc, cuius meminit Plinius, inter aquilam iflam {fi aquila dicenda fil) & aues aquaticas, non fiolilm ego fcepijfime uidi, fed infiniti apud Anglos quotidie uident. Si jqua terree portiuncula fuper aquas inter arundineta emineat, in hac folet nidum facere, ut quoniam uolatu non admodum ualet, a prceda non procul abfit. Aues fub ito adoritur, & fic capit. Cuniculos ifla interdum etiam dilaniat. Nunc an ifla anataria fit nec ne, dodiis uiris indicandum propono. strength; it passes its life round lakes. By pools it chases water-birds,, which dive from time to time, until it catches them sleepy and weary. The contest is a sight to see, the quarry seeking refuge on the shore, chiefly where reeds are thick, and thence the Aquila drives it away with a stroke of the wing and plunges in the lake as it swoops from above, shewing its shadow to the bird as it swims under water from the shore. Again the latter tries a different place and comes up where it thinks that it will least be marked. This is the cause of birds swimming in flocks, for they are not molested when in companies, and blind their enemy by splashing with their wings. The Aquilae themselves, moreover, often are immersed, not being able to support the weight that they have clutched Thus Pliny. All things that Aristotle and Pliny have attributed to the bird Percnos so far well agree with the Balbushard of the English^ if one may except its size alone, and if the rest be present, that perhaps should not stand in the way. Now the bird which I apprehend to be the Anataria, being bigger and longer than the Buteo, with a white patch upon the head, and nearly fuscous in colour, always haunts the banks of rivers, pools, and swamps; it lives by hunting Ducks and those black fowls which Englishmen call Gouts. The conflict of which Pliny makes mention above between this Eagle (if it should be called an Eagle) and the water-birds I have seen often, and not I alone, but countless Englishmen witness it daily. If anywhere a little space of ground rises among the reed-beds, there the bird is wont to make a nest, that, since in power of flight it is not very strong, it may not be far distant from its prey. It suddenly attacks birds, and thus takes them. It also sometimes butchers coneys. Now whether this may be the Anataria or not I put it to the learned to decide. ^ The l^ald-Buzzard or Marsh-Harrier {Circus ccrugiuostis). T. 3 De tertio genere ex Aristotele \ Tertium genus colore nigricas, unde nomen [p-30] accepit, ut pulla & fuluia'^ uocetur, magnitudine minima, fed uiribus omnium pr^ftantiffima. H^c colit montes & fyluas & leporaria cognominatur. PliniusI M0l36naetos. IVIelsenaetos a Grsecis didfa, eademc^? ualeria, minima magnitudine, uiribus praecipua, colore nigricans: fola aquilarum foetus fuos alit, caeterae fugant: fola fine clangore, fine murmuratione. De quarto genere ex Aristot. ^ percno- Quartum genus percnopterus ab alarum pterus. notis, capite albicante, corpore minore, quam caeterae adhuc didtae, haec efh. Sed breuioribus alis, cauda longiore, uulturis fpeciem h^c refert. Subaquila^ & aquila montana cognominatur. In- [p. 31] colit lucos, degener, nec uicijs caeterarum caret, & bonorum, quae illae obtinent, expers eft: quippe quae a coruo, caeteriscj^ id genus auibus uerberetur, fugetur, capiatur. Grauis enim eft, ui6lu iners: examinata® fert corpora: famelica femper eft, et querula, clamitat, & clangit. DE HALIjEETO. Haliceetus Greece & Latine, Anglice an ofprey, Germanice eV)n inh)arn. ^ Hist. \\y ^ Aristotle has merely: KaXarat Se j^eXavaeros /eat Xayco(povos. 3 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. iii. 4 Hist. An. Bk IX. 114; a very free version. ^ Some texts read yvnaUros for vTrtueTos. 6 Lege ‘ exanimata.’ Aristotle has ra redvewra c^epeoj/. Of the third kind from Aristotle. The third kind in colour is blackish, whence it has received its name, so that the bird is called Pulla and Fulvia, in size the least of all and yet chiefest in strength. It haunts mountains and woods, and is called also Leporaria. Pliny. The bird called Mela^naetos among the Greeks, which is the same as the Valeria, is very small in size, but chief in strength, in colour blackish : of the Aquilae this kind alone fosters its young, the others drive them off: it is the only one without a scream, without a softer note. Of the fourth kind from Aristotle. The fourth kind, called Percnopterus, from having spots upon the wings, is whitish on the head ; it has a smaller body than the other sorts spoken of hitherto. But with its shorter wings and longer tail it has the aspect of a Vulture. It is called besides Subaquila and Mountain Aquila. It dwells in woodlands, an ignoble bird, not lacking the bad qualities of others, but void of the good that they possess. For it is beaten, put to flight, and caught by the Raven and by other birds like that. Further it is unwieldy, sluggish to get food, and carries off dead bodies ; it is always ravenous and querulous ; it cries continually and screams. Of the Mali^etus. Haliaeetus in Greek and Latin, in English an Osprey, in German eyn visharn. Plinius \ Supereft Haliaeetus, clariffima oculorum acie, librans ex alto fefe uifo4^ in mari pifce, praeceps in eii ruens, & difcuffis peftore aquis rapiens. Aristoteles I Haliaeetos, hoc eft, marina aquila, ceruice [p. 32] magna & craffa, alls curuantibus, & cauda lata eft. Moratur haec in littoribus & oris. Accidit huic faepius, ut quum ferre, quod ceperit, nequeat, in gurgitem demergatur. HalicBctos apud Anglos hodie notior eji, quam multi uehnt^ qui in uiuarijs pifces alunt: nam pijces omnes hreui tempore aufert. Pifcatores nojlrates efcis fallendis pifeihus defiinatis., haliceeti adipem illinunt^ aut immifcent., putantes hoc argumento efcam efficaciore futuram, quod halicEeto fefe in aere librate, pifees quotquot fubfunt {itatura aquilce ad hoc cogente, ut creditur) fefe refupinet, & uetres albicantes, ut quem liberet, eligeret, exhibeat. De aquila vera ex Aristotele l Sextum genus gnefium, id eft, ueru germa- Hght^egle num4j appellant. Vnu hoc ex omni aquilarum German. genere, ueri incorrupti43 ortus creditur. Maxi- ma omnium aquilarum haec elt, maior etiam [p. 33] quam offifraga ^: fed caeteras aquilas uel fefqui- altera portione excedit, colore rutba eft, con- fpedlu rara. DE ARDEA. ipcoBio^, ardea, Anglice an heron. Germanice e^n re^ger. 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. iii. 2 Hist. An. Bk ix. T15, a free version. 3 Bk IX. 116. ^ Gaza translates (f)T)vv ossifraga, but it is very doubtful what bird the ossifraga really was. Possibly it should be identified with the Lammergeier (cf. Prof. Newton, Diet. Birds, p. 660). Pliny. The Haliaeetus remains, with eyesight of the keenest, poising itself aloft when it spies fishes in the sea below, then dashing headlong on them and securing them, the waters being parted by its breast. Aristotle. The Haliaeetos, that is to say Sea Eagle, has the neck both big and thick, bowed wings, and a broad tail. It bides upon the sea-coast and the shores. It often happens, when it cannot lift what it has taken, that it is submerged beneath the tide. The Osprey is a bird much better known to-day to Englishmen than many who keep fish in stews would wish; for within a short time it bears off every fish. Our anglers smear or mix their bait with Osprey’s fat, arguing that thus the bait will prove more efficacious from the fact that, when the Osprey hovers in the air, whatever fishes be below turn up and shew their whitish bellies (as it is believed, the nature of the Aquila compelling them to this), that it may choose that one which it prefers. Of the true Aquila from Aristotle. The sixth kind men call Genuine, or true and thoroughbred. Of all the various kinds of Aquilse this is the only one that is believed to be of true and unstained origin. This is the largest of all Aquilae and bigger even than the Ossifrage, for it surpasses by one half as much the other Aquilae ; in colour it is reddish brown, but it is rarely seen. Of the Ardea. epcoSto?, ardea, in English a heron, in German eyn reyger. 3» Aristoteles^ Ardearum tria funt genera, pella, alba, ftel- laris, piger cognomine. Pellse coitus difficilis efl : uociferatur enim, & fanguinem ex oculis (ut aiunt) emittit cum coit; parit etiam segre Pella. fummocj^ cum dolore. Pella fagax" & coenae gerula eft, & operofa l Agere interdiu folet: colore tamen & prauo & aluo humida. Reliquarum duarum, alba colore efh pulchro, & coit, & nidulatur & parit probe, pafcitur paludibus. Stellaris. lacu, campis & pratis. Sed ftellaris piger cogno- [p. 34] minata, (in fabula est, ut olim e feruo in auem tranfierit) atque, ut cognome fonat, iners ocio- fa45 eft. Phoici appellatae ^ peculiare pr^E cae- teris eft, ut oculos potiftimum appetat l Petit lacus & fluuios ardea' & albardeola, quae magnitudine minor eft, roftro lato, porre6lo43. The blue heron. a cryel heron or a duuarf heron, a myre dromble. Pella apud Anglos in excelfis arborihns, no proctd a ripis jiuininuni crefcentibns niduni facit. Superior pars corporis cyanea efl, inferior auteni nonihil candicat, uentris excremetis liquidioribus inuadentes fe fubito aquilas, aut accipitres abigit, & fe ita defendit. Vidi & huius generis, licet raras, albas, quce neque corporis magnitudine, neque figura, fed folo colore, a fuperiore difiulerunt. Vifa efl etiam alba cum cyanea apud Anglos nidulari, & prolem gignere. Quare eiuf- dem effe fpeciei, fatis confiat. Albardeolam, quce GrcEce \6VK€p(t)SL6^ dicitur, femel tantum in Italia uidi, pella multo minor efl, & hominis confpedlu no perinde atq\ ccerulea fugit. Hac fi no uidiffem, Angloru shoue- 1 Hist. An. Bk IX. 19. Hist. An. Bk ix. 93. ^ Aristotle’s word is erraypos, which Sundevall renders by the Swedish equivalent of ‘ forages round the fields.’ 4 Hist. An. Bk ix. 94. ^ This seems to mean that the (pcoii^ eats^ other creatures’ eyes, for Aristotle says : paXicrra yap iartv 6(f)6a\po^6pos rcov opvldcov. Aristotle. Of Ardeae there are three kinds, Pella, Alba, and Stellaris, but the last has the by-name of Piger. The coupling of Pella is difficult, for it screams while it couples and (they say) emits blood from its eyes : it also brings forth painfully and with extreme distress. The Pella is sagacious, quick at getting food\ and always busy. It is wont to be astir by day ; yet it is mean in colour, with the belly wet. Of the remaining two the Alba, fair of colour, couples, nests and brings forth well; it feeds in marshes, on a lake, in fields and meadow-ground. But the Stellaris, by- named Lazy (in the fable it is said of old to have been changed from a slave to a bird), as its by-name imports, is slow and indolent. The bird called Phoix has beyond all others this peculiarity that it especially attacks the eyes. The Ardea and the Albardeola, which is of smaller size and has a broad and elongated bill, seek lakes and rivers. The Pella builds its nest in England on the lofty trees that grow not far from the banks of streams. The upper part of the body is blue, the lower is, however, somewhat white. It routs Eagles or Hawks, if they attack it suddenly, by very liquid mutings of the belly, and thereby defends itself. Of this kind I have seen some white, though they are rare, which differed from the aforesaid neither in their size nor shape of body, but in colour only. Eurthermore the white has been observed in England to nest with the blue, and to bear offspring. Wherefore it is clear that they are of one species. I have only once seen—and that was in Italy—the Albardeola, which is called Xev/cepcoSto^; in Greek ; it is much smaller than the Pella and by no means shuns the sight of man so much as does the blue. Had I not seen it, I should have declared the Albardeola to be the English ^ That is, for its young. a buttour ein pittour. ein rofdo. Phoix. Auriuittis. lardam alb ardeola effe iu dicaffern. Stellaris efl, qua [p- 35] Angli hiittoiiriim.aut bittoimmi, & Germani pittouriim & rofdoninmin nominant: nam anis efi toto corporis habitn ardeis reliquis fimilis^ ex pifcium uenatu ad ripas paludium & amnium uiuens, pigerrima & floli- dijfima, ut quce in retia ab equo faclicio agi potefi facilime. Colore efi fere^ quantum memini, phafiani, roftro limo indito, afininos ronchos noce refert: ceidos hominum auidiffimc omnium auium appetit. Quare fi quid impediat, quo minus ftellaris effe pofpt, {quod mihi nondum cernere datum efi) phoica effe oportebit, quam Arifioteles oculos maxime appetere tejiatur, quan- quam & cceterce ardecB idem facere fcepe uifce funt. DE AVRIVITTE. XpucroyLttrpt?, nd ut qiddam codices habent, pvao/jbrj- Tp7j(;, auriuittis, Anglice a gold finche, Germanice el)U biftelfincf, ober ei)n Auriuittis una ejl ex aidcidis, quce carduorum femine iddlitanA, & uermes etiam oblatos, non attingunt. Alif goldfincam, aut diftehdncam, fpinum, alij carduelem effe uolunt. Sed fi qids, ex fpiniuoris prceter hanc aliam aurea uitta redimitam ofiederit, cid magis auriuittis nomen competat, quam hdc, opinionem meam facile patiar explodi, adoqid non uideo, qidn digna fit, quce probetur. DE ATTAGENE. K.TTayy)v, arrabo.?, attagen, attagena. Attagen, ut fcrib it Arifioteles, gallinagini fiimilis efl colore. Attagenam uarijs difiindlam effe maculis, Arifiophanes'^ his uerfibus teflatur: Si quis ex uobis erit fugitiuus atq\ ufius notis, Attagen fane apud nos narius appellabitur. 1 Aristotle’s groups of Birds are as follows; (i) yafxyp-awx^s (crooked-clawed) ; (2) (TK(o\r]K.o(f)dya (worm-eating) ; (3) aKav- 6o(f)dya (eating thistle seeds); (4) (TKL7ro(f)dya (? grub-eating) ; (5) TT(pL(TT€poeihr] (dove-like) ; (6) (cleft-footed) ; (7) a-reyavoTToba (wholly webbed) ; (8) ^apea (heavy, i.e. ground kinds). A few Birds, however, can hardly be placed under any of these. 2 Aues, 11. 761—762. [P- 36] Shovelard^ Stellaris is that kind which Englishmen denominate buttour or bittour, and the Germans call pittour or rosdom. Now it is a bird like other Herons in its state of body generally, living by hunting fishes on the banks of swamps and rivers, very sluggish and most stupid, so that it can very easily be driven into nets by the use of a stalking horse. So far as I remember, it is nearly of the colour of a Pheasant, and the beak is smeared with mud ; it utters brayings like those of an ass. Of all birds it aims at mens’ eyes most readily. Wherefore if anything hinders this kind from being the Stellaris (which is not yet given to me to see) it ought to be the Phoix, inasmuch as Aristotle testifies that it aims chiefly at the eyes, though other Ardeae also often seem to do the same. Of the Aurivittis. 'KpvaofMLTpt^ (not as some texts have it pvo-o/uiApV^)^ aurivittis, in English a gold finche, in German eyn distel- finck or eyn stigelitz. The Aurivittis is one of the small birds that feed on seeds of thistles, and do not touch worms even when offered to them. Some will have it that the Goldfinc or the Distel- vinc is but the Spinus^ some the Carduelis. But if anyone can shew another of the thistle-eating birds save this, girt with a golden band, to which the name of Aurivittis is more fitting than to this, I gladly will allow my opinion to be ignored, but otherwise, I do not see why it should not be worthy of approval. Of the Attagen. ^Arraypv, arra^a?, attagen, attagena. The Attagen, as Aristotle writes, is like the Gallinago in colour. And Aristophanes bears witness in these lines that the Attagena is marked with varied spots:— “ If any of you be a runaway and branded with the marks, he shall assuredly be called with us the spotted Attagen.” 1 That is, the Spoonbill of modern books {Platalea leucorodza)^ while the buttour is of course the Bittern {Botaurus stellaris) ^ Turner himself considered Spinus to be the Greenfinch (cf. p. 85 of the original). Plinius^ de attagene. Attagen maxime Ionius celebratur, uocalis alias, captus uero obmutefcit, quondam exifhi- matus inter raras aues. lam & in Gallia Hi- fpaniacjj capitur, & per alpes. Petrus Gyllius". Attagen, eft perdice paulo maior, uerficolo- ribus pi6la plumis in dorfo, & color ruffus eft, uefcitur grano, breuibus eft alis, & puluera- tor eft. Falluntur igitur Britannici ludimagijiri, qui fuu Wodcoccum attagenem faciunt, qid folis uefcititr uer- mibus, IF grana nunquam attingit. An attagenes apud [p- 37] Anglos inueniantur necne, midtum fane ambigo, nam qtd attagenem defcribunt, marem a foemina non fepa- rant. unde colligo eundem ftdffe colorem, F eandem figuram maris F fa^mince. Cceterum in hoc aidum genere, quod apitd nos ad attagenis formam proxime accedit, mas a foemina ita differt lU duorum generu ifiiufmodi reru inperito idderi poffint. Vtranque tamen auem defcribam. Mas gallo domefiico paulo minor, totus niger efl, excepta ea parte caudcB, quce podicem tegit, ea enim alba eft, Cceteru nigredo huius nonnihil fplendefcit, ad eum fere modum, quo columborum nigrorum torques circa colla fplendefcunt, ad uiriditatem igitur proxime accedit, in capite rubrum quendam habet, fed carneum cirru, F circa genas duos habet ueluti lobos rubros, F eos carneos, Foemina tota maculis diftinFta eji, F a perdice, nifi maior effet, F ruffa magis, cEgre dignofci 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xlviii. 2 Petrus Gyllius was the author of the work De vi et natura Aniinaliuni etc. Lugd. Bat. 1533. Pliny of the Attagen. The Attagen is most renowned as an Ionian bird ; it usually is noisy, in captivity however it is dumb. In former times it was considered rare, but now it is taken in Gaul, in Spain, and on the Alps. Petrus Gyllius. The Attagen is rather larger than the Perdix, and is marked with particoloured feathers on the back, in colour it is reddish, and it feeds on grain. It has short wings, and rolls itself in dust. Accordingly our British schoolmasters are wrong who make their Woodcock the Attagen, which lives only on worms and never touches grain. Indeed I seriously doubt whether i\ttagenes be found in England or not, for those who give descriptions of the Attagen, do not distinguish the male from the female, whence I infer that they have the same colours and are like in form. But in the kind of bird which with us comes the nearest to the Attagen in form, the male differs so greatly from the female that they might appear to be of separate kinds to the man inexperienced in things like this. Nevertheless I will describe each bird. The male^ is somewhat less than a domestic cock and is entirely black, save that part of the tail which overlies the vent, for that is white. Moreover the black colour of the bird is somewhat glossy, very nearly as the collar round the neck of our black pigeons is. So it approaches very near to green. Upon its head it has a red but fleshy sort of comb 2, and round its cheeks two red lobes as it were and those fleshy. The hen is wholly marked with spots, and, were she not a bigger bird and more rufous, could scarcely be distinguished from a Partridge. Both frequent 1 Turner here undoubtedly refers to the Blackcock {^Tetrao tetrix). ^ The Blackcock has two erectile patches of red skin over the eyes, which in the breeding season even reach above the top of the head ; and the word ‘ cirrum ’ must be taken to mean such a patch here. pofjlt. In defertis locis & planis, erica potiffimum confitis, ambo degunt, grano uefcuntur, et fummis ericcE gerniinibus. Breues Jiabens alas, & breues faciunt uolatus. Hcbc auis, fi attagen no fit, gallina uidetur ejfe Varronis ruftica. Erafnius in Adagio, Attagence nouilunium, attagenam aueni paluftreni facit, & uarijs maculis diftindtam, quod fo fatis exploratum \q^.pS\miJii effet, Anglorum goduuittani, fine fedoam, attagenam effe, indubitanter auderem adfirmare. Eft autem ipfa gallinagini ita fimilis, ut nifi paulo maior effet, & pedtoi'is color magls ad cinereu uergeret, altera ab altera difficulter poffit difiingui. uiuit in locis palufiri- bus, et ad ripas fluminu. roftrum habet longum, fed capta triticum non fecus atque columbi, comedit, triplo pluris quam gallinago apud nos uenditur, tantopere eius caro magnatum palatis arridet, harum fi neutra fit attagena, attagenam nufquam uidi, DE ATRICAPILLA, MeXaz^/^opL'^o?, atricapilla, Germa. ut creditur, ev)u grafmufien. Aristoteles \ Atricapillam etiam plurima edere aliqui referunt, fed poft Africam ftrutionem. lam uel decem & fepte oua atricapillae reperta funt. fed plura etiam quam uiginti parit, & numero impari femper, ut narrant. Nidificat ea quoq? in arboribus, & uermiculis alitur. Proprium huius [p- 39] & lufciniae praeter caeteras aues, ut linguae fum- mae acumine careant. Ficedulae & atricapillae uicibus commutantur. Fit enim ineunte autumno ficedula, ab autumno protinus atricapilla, ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 88. 2 Hist. An. Bk IX. 256—257. waste open places, and especially those covered with heather. They feed on grain and on the topmost buds of heather. They have short wings and take short flights. This bird, if it be not the Attagen, appears to be Varro’s Gallina rustica. Erasmus in his proverb of the Attagena’s new- moon” makes his Attagena a marsh-bird, marked with varied spots. If this approved itself sufficiently to me I confidently would venture to affirm that the Attagena was what the English call the Godwitt or Eedoa\ Furthermore the bird is so much like the Woodcock, that, if it were not a little larger, and did not the breast verge upon ash-colour, the one of them could hardly be distinguished from the other. It is found in marshy places and on river banks. The beak is long; but in captivity it feeds on wheat, just as our Pigeons do. With us it sells for thrice as much again as any Woodcock, so much does its flesh tickle the palates of our magnates. Of these two, if neither be the Attagena, then I have nowhere seen the Attagena. Of the Atricapilla. MeXa7/copu(/)o?, atricapilla, in German, as is supposed, eyn grasmuklen. Aristotle. The Atricapilla, as some report, lays the most eggs of all, next to the Struthio of Africa. No fewer than seventeen eggs of the Atricapilla have been found, but it lays even more than twenty and, as some narrate, in number always odd. It also nests in trees and feeds upon small worms. It is peculiar to this and the Luscinia beyond all other birds that they have no point to the tip of the tongue. Ficedulae and Atricapillae change in turn. For when autumn sets in the bird becomes a Ficedula, from autumn onwards it becomes an Atricapilla, nor is ^ See Prof. Newton’s Diet. Birds., p. 248. nee inter eas diferimen aliquod, nifi coloris & uocis eft. Auem effe eandem coftat, quia dum immutaretur hoc genus, utruque confpeftum eft, nondum abfolute mutatum, nec alterutrum adhuc proprium ullum habens appellationis \ H aec Aristoteles. Audcapillam in Anglia nunquam uidi, neq\ /(Epius in uita quam femel, idq\ in Italia in domo Ducis Ferra- rienfis. Eamp, mihi uir utriufq\ linguce no tmlganter dodlus, D. Francifeus, duci a /acris concionibus exhibuit. Angloru lingettcB, & Germanorum gra/mu/cho, quod ad corporis magnitudinem attinet, /imilis erat: /ed atrum habebat caput, & reliqtmm corporis colorem magis ad cinerium uergentem. DE BVBONE. bubo, Anglice, alyke /oule, Germa^iice ei)n Aristoteles l Bubo e noftuarum genere eft, & nodtuae fpecie quidem fimilis, fed magnitudine non minor quam aquila. Plinius ^ Bubo funebris, & maxime abominatus, publicis praecipue aufpicijs, deferta incolit, nec tantum defolata, fed etiam inacceffa : no6lis monftrum, nec cantu aliquo uocalis, fed gemitu. Volat nuquam quo libuit, fed tranfuerfus aufertur. Hqc Plinius. Hanc auem /emel Venetijs lujla aqudcE magnitudine uidi, /ed crura erant paulo breuiora quam aquilcE crura /olent e/fe. Ccetera aquil(E fimilis erat. ^ Aristotle has eKaripeo Idiov tl vTrppx^v ovdev according to one text. He has no word to represent ‘ appellationis.’ 2 Or Bpvas. ^ Hist. An. Bk VIii. 39. there any difference between the two, save that of colour and of voice. That the bird is the same is evident, since, while this kind is undergoing the change, each of the two is seen, not fully changed as yet, and neither having so far any proper name. Thus far Aristotle. In England I have never seen the Atricapilla, nor yet but once in life, and that in Italy within the house of the Duke of Ferrara. And Don Francisco of the Holy Council of the Duke, a man uncommonly well versed in both the tongues, shewed it to me himself The bird was like the English lingett and the German grasmuschen, so far as size of body went; but it had a black head, and the remaining colour of its body verging more to grey. Of the Bubo. Bua?, bubo, in English alyke foule, in German eyn schuf- fauss (eyn schuffel), eyn kautz. Aristotle. The Bubo is of the race of Noctua, and is in aspect very like a Noctua, but not less than an Aquila in size. Pliny. The Bubo is a fatal bird, of evil omen beyond other sorts, especially at public auguries ; it lives in desert places, and not merely those that are unpeopled, but those also hard of access : monster of the night it utters not a song, but only a groan. It never flies where it intends, but is borne off aslant. So Pliny says. This bird I saw at Venice once, of a full Eagle’s sizef its legs, however, were a little shorter than an Eagle’s legs are wont to be. But it was like an Eagle otherwise. ^ Turner probably meant the Eagle Owl {^Biibo ig^iavus). DE BOSCA. Bofca, auis eji aquatica, anati fimilis, fed minor. Quum multcE fint aues aquaticcB aliati fimiles, fed minores, ut funt, tel(E uocatcB ab Anglis Vuigene & pochardee, eam puto bofcam effe, quee proxime ad magnitudinem & fmilitudineni anatis accedit. Hoc quum pocJiarda faciat, illam Arifiotelis effe bofcam iudico. DE CAPRIMVLGO. Caprimidgus, al^oOrjXa^. Aristoteles'. Caprimulgus, auis eft montana, magnitudine paulo maior, quam merula, minor quam cuculus, moribus mollior. Parit duo oua, aut tria cum plurima. Sugit, caprarum ubera aduolans, unde nomen accepit. Cum uber fuxerit, extingui, capramc^j excsecari aiunt, parum clare interdiu uidet, fed no6lu perfpicax. Plinius l . 42] Caprimulgi appellantur grandiores merulae afpedlu, fures nodlurni, interdiu etiam uifu carent. Cum effem apud Heluetios, fenem quendam con- fpicatus, capras pafcentem in montibus, quos hei'bas queerendi gratia afeenderam, rogabam num auem 110- uiffet merulee magnitudine, interdiu ceeeam, noCtu per- fpicacem, quee caprarum ubera noCtu fugere foleat, unde capree poftea ceeeee euaduntl qui refpodit, fe in Helue- tiorum montibus ante quatuordecim annos, multos ui- diffe, C multas iniurias ab ipfs paffum, ut qui femel 1 Hist. An. Bk IX. 109. Of the Bosca. The Bosca is a water fowl, like to a Duck\ but smaller. Since there are many water fowls like to the Duck, but smaller (as there surely are), called Teles, Wigenes and Pochards by the English, I believe the Bosca to be that which comes nearest the size and likeness of a Duck. And since the Pochard does so, I decide that it is Aristotle’s Bosca. Of the Caprimulgus. Caprimulgus, aljoOrfKas. Aristotle. The Caprimulgus is a mountain bird, in size a little bigger than the Merula, less than the Cuculus ; in disposition it is milder. It lays two eggs or three at most. Flying to the udders of she-goats, it sucks them, and thus gets its name. They say that the udder withers^ when it has sucked at it, and that the goat goes blind. By day the bird sees dimly, but quite well at night. Pliny. Caprimulgi, as they are called, look bigger than a Merula, and act as thieves by night; by day they even lack the power of sight. When I was in Switzerland I saw an aged man, who fed his goats upon the mountains, which I had gone up intent on search of plants : I asked him whether he knew a bird of the size of a Merula, blind in the day-time, keen of sight at night, which in the dark is wont to suck goats’ udders, so that afterwards the animals go blind. Now he replied that he himself had seen many in the Swiss mountains fourteen years before, that he had suffered many losses from those very ^ That is, the Wild Duck (Anas boscas). ^ This rendering appears much preferable to translating this word ‘the goat dies,’ as, judging from the punctuation, some would have it. T. 4 fex capellas a caprimalgo occcecatas habuerat. ccEteru nue omnes ad unum ab Heluetijs ufque ad i7iferiores Germanos^ ubi hodie non foltmi capras ladle priuant & occcEcant, fed & ones infuper occidunt, auolaffe. Nomen aiiis queer enti, paphum, id ef, facerdotem dici refpddit. Sed ueUilus ille mecu forte locatus ef. Ego uero, fine iocatus fuerit, fiite ferio locuUis, aliud Germanicu caprimtdgi nomen qua quod me dociiit ifie, 7io7i teneo. Si qui fint, qui melius & aptius nomen in prop tu habeant, proferant. DE CARDVELE. Carduelis,fi Gazee credimus, Greece 6paviris dicitur, [p. 43] ^ inter fpiniuoras aniculas Arifioteles recenfet. Nec plura de carduele apud Arifiotelem lego. Plinius^ feri- bit cardueles auium minimas imperata facere, nec uoce tanthm, fed pedibus & ore pro manibus. Preeter auicidam illa-m fpiniuoram aurea idtta redimitam, aliam noid fpiniuoram colore idridem, quee non fecus atq-, auriuittis rofiro e duabus fitidis uicijfim afeendentibus & defeendentibus, cibum ex una, & potii ex altera defumit. Qidn & hoc facit miliaria, quam linotam nofirates appellant. Eade quoq\ homine quid- ids edtante, uoce imitatur. Quare no fola illa, quee Greece Qpaviris, df Patme Pheodoro carduelis dicitur, imperata facit, df rofiro df pedibus pro manibus utitur. Diclu mihi difficile uidetur, quam'nam e tribus, quum omnes illee carduorum femine uefeantur, Plinius carduelem fecerit, nu thraupin aut acanthin, aut chry- birds; so that he had once had six she-goats blinded by Caprimulgi, but that one and all they now had flown away from Switzerland to Lower Germany, where nowadays they did not only steal the milk of she-goats, making them go blind, but killed the sheep besides. And, on my asking the bird’s name, he said that it was called the Paphus, otherwise the Priest. But possibly that aged man was jesting with me. Yet whether he was jesting, or spoke gravely, still I have no other German name than what he gave to me for Caprimulgus. If there be any then who have in readiness a better or a fitter name than this, let them produce it. Of the Carduelis. The Carduelis, if we believe Gaza, is in Greek called Opavird. Aristotle also numbers it among small thistle- eatersfi I find in Aristotle nothing more than this about the Carduelis. Pliny writes that Cardueles, smallest of all birds, perform set tasks, and not in song alone, but with their feet and beak in place of hands. Besides that thistle-eating little bird^ adorned with band of gold I know another thistle-eating sort, in colour green^ which with its beak takes up its food from one of two small buckets moving up and down alternately, its water from the other, as the Aurivittis does. The Miliaria moreover does the same, which bird our countrymen call Linot. Furthermore it mimics with its song a man when singing anything. And so it is not only that one kind, in Greek called OpaviTi^ and in Latin named by Theodorus^ Carduelis that performs the tasks that it is bid, and uses beak and feet in place of hands. It seems to me then difficult to say, since all three birds feed upon thistle-seeds, which of them Pliny meant by Carduelis, whether it should be the Thraupis, or the Acanthis, or the Chrysomitris. And should it be the Thraupis, as 1 See p. 35. ^ The Aurivittis, p. 35. 2 Probably Turner means the Siskin {Carduelis spinus). ^ Theodorus Gaza. fouiitvc. Si th^^ciupiu, ut Gaza cvedit, auis illa auveis plufyiis carduelis non erit: nant illa apud Arijlot. no 6pav'iri<;, fed Chryfomitris eft. Qudnd igitur auis carduelis fit, non audeo pronunciare. DE CCERVLEONE. cccrideo, Angliee, a clotburd, a fmatehe, an arlyng, a fieinchek, German. et)n brec^ uogcl. 44] Aristoteles \ Coeruleo maxime in Scyro^ colit, faxa amans: magnitudine minor quam merula, maior paulo qua fringilla .* pede magno eft, fcanditcjj faxa : colore coeruleo: roftro tenui & longo: crure breui, fimiliter ut pipo eft, Cceruleo, Ji ea fiit auis, quam conijcio effe, in cuniculorum foueis, &" fub lapidibus in Anglia nididatur, df in hyeme non apparet. DE CE RTHIA. Aristoteles ^ Certhia, auicula eft exigua, cui mores audaces, domicilium apud arbores, uiftus ex cdffis, ingenium fagax in uitae officijs. Auis eft qucedam, quam Angli ereperam, id eft, reptitatricem nominant, quod fuper arbores femper repat, quam certhiam effe credo. Ea regulo paulo maior, peTtore pallido, ccetera fufca & maculis nigris difiindla 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 97. 2 Another reading is Nicrupo). 3 jjLeyakoTTovs, but some read fxeXavoTrov^. 4 Hist. An. Bk IX. 92. Gaza believes, that bird with golden feathers will not be the Carduelis, for with Aristotle that is not the Opaviri^, but the Chrysomitris„ Therefore I dare not pronounce what bird the Carduelis is. Of the Cceruleo. Kvav6<^, coeruleo, in English a clot-burd, a smatche, an arlyng, a steinchek, in German eyn brech vogel. Aristotle. The Coeruleo chiefly dwells in Scyros and loves rocks; in size it is a little smaller than a Merula, a little larger than a Fringilla: it has large feet, and climbs on rocks : in colour it is blue : the beak is . long and thin : the legs are short as in the Pipo. The Coeruleo^ if it be the bird which I conjecture, nests in rabbit holes and under stones in England, and does not appear in winter. Of the Certhia. Aristotle. The Certhia is a very little bird of bold habits ; its home is upon trees, its food is grubs; it shews wise instinct for the needs of life. There is a certain bird which Englishmen call Creeper, that is Climber, for it always climbs about on trees : this I believe to be the Certhia. It is a little bigger than the Regulus, having a whitish breast, the other parts dull brown, but varied with black spots; its note is sharp, its ^ Whatever bird Aristotle’s may be, Turner’s is certainly the Wheatear. Belon and Gesner seem to think that the former is the Blue Thrush, but Sundevall is certainly wrong in suggesting that it is the Wall-Creeper {Tichodr'oina muraria). [p- 45] eft^ twee acuta eft, & rojlro tenid, & leidter in fine aduneo, ntmquam quiefeit, fed femper per arbores picoriun more feandit, & eoffos e corticibus erttens, comedit. DE CICONIA. n6Xa/)709, ciconia, Anglice a ftork, Germanice z\)\\ ftoref, If Saxonice ebel)ei’. Ciconia, ut Germanis aids eft tiotilfima, ita Britannis meis plerifq\ omnibus tarn ignota eft, quam quee omnium ignotifiima. Nee mirum, qttum nufquam in infida noftra nifi captiua Ciconia iddeatur. Apud Germanos in funimis teltis, aliquando in ipfis fummis fumarijs nididatur. Aids eft medice magnitudinis inter gruem If ardeam, pennis atbis & nigris diftincta: erura tonga habet, roftrum gridnam,fed rubrum If craffum: cirea lacus If paludes degit, ranas, bufones, angues, & pifees eomedens. Plinius de ciconiis \ Ciconiae, quo'nam e loco ueniant, aut quo fe referant, incompertum adhuc eft. E longinquo uenire, non dubium, eodem, quo grues modo, illas hyemis, iftas aeftatis aduenas. Abi- [p. 46] turae congregantur in loco certo : comitatae(j5, fic ut nulla fui generis relinquatur, nifi captiua & ferua, ceu lege praedidla die recedut. Nemo uidit agmen difcedentium, cum difceffurum appareat, nec uenire, fed ueniffe cernimus. Vtrum- que nodlurnis fit temporibus. Ciconiae nidos eofdem repetunt, & genetricum feneftutem educant. DE CINCIO. K/7/CX09, 4 creicroiTvyd, Anglice a uuater fuuallouu, Germanice e^u fte^)ntnffev. beak is slender and is slightly hooked towards the tip; it never rests, but is for ever climbing up the trunks of trees after the manner of the Woodpeckers, and it eats grubs, picking them from the bark. Of the Ciconia. Ile\ap709, ciconia, in English a stork, in German eyn storck, and in Saxon eyn ebeher. The Stork, though one of the best known of birds among the Germans, is to nearly all my countrymen of Britain as unknown as the most unknown bird. And little wonder since a Stork is nowhere to be seen, save as a captive, in our island. With the Germans the bird nests upon roofs or even chimney tops at times. It is a bird of middle size between a Crane and a Heron and distinguished by feathers of black and white: it has long legs and a beak like a Crane’s, but red and stout; it lives near lakes and marshes, eating frogs, toads, snakes and fishes. Pliny on Ciconiae. From what parts the Ciconiae may come, or whither they betake themselves, is not yet ascertained. It is indubitable that they come from far in the same manner as the Grues, but the former arrive in winter and the latter in summer. When ready to depart these birds collect at some fixed place, and after gathering, so that none of their tribe, unless a prisoner or a slave, is left behind, they disappear, on an appointed day, as if by law. No one has ever seen the whole array in very act to go, though it may haply shew itself when ready to depart; nor do we view it coming, but when it has come. Both these events take place at night. Ciconiae seek the same nests again, and tend their parents in old age. Of the Cinclus. Kf<y/cAo?, T) in English a water swallow, in German eyn steynbisser. Aristoteles \ Cincius ex mari & fluuijs uiftu petit, aftutus eft, & captu difficilis: fed captus, omnium maxime mitefcit. L^fus hic eft, incontinens enim parte fui pofteriore. Auiciila^ qua ego cinclii effe puto, galerita paulo maior eji, colore in tergo nigro, uentre albo, tibijs longis, & rojiro netUiquam breui: uere circa ripas [p- 47] fluminum, ualde clamoja eji & quertUa, breues & crebros facit uolatus. DE CHALCIDE, Aristoteles l Chalcis raro apparet, montes etenim incolit, nigro colore eft, magnitudine accipitris, quem palumbarium nominant: forma longa ac tenui, Iones cymindem appellant, cuius Homerus etiam meminit in Iliade cum dicit: Chalcida dijperhibens, homines dixere cymindem^. Sunt, qui eandem hanc aue non aliam effe atque ptyngem uelint. Interdiu minus apparet, quia non clare uidet, fed nodtu uenatur, more aquilae : pugnat uero cum aquila adeo acriter, ut faepius ambae implexae, deferantur in terram f & uiu^ a paftoribus capiantur. Parit hec oua duo, & faxis fpelunciscjj nidulatur. 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 76. 2 Hist. An. Bk IX. 79—80. 3 Iliad, Bk XIV. 1. 291. ‘Perhibens’ is a misprint for ‘ perhibent.’ ^ Aristotle has not these five words. Aristotle. The Cincius seeks its food from the sea and from rivers. It is cunning and is hard to catch, but grows the gentlest of all birds when caught. It is moreover maimed, being without control over its hinder parts. The little bird which I believe to be the Cincius^ is a little bigger than the Galerita, with black colour on the back, and a white belly; while it has long shanks and a bill by no means short: in spring it is exceeding clamorous and querulous about the banks of rivers, where it takes short and incessant flights. Of the Chalcis. Aristotle. The Chalcis is not often seen, for it haunts mountains. It is of a black colour, and of the size of the Accipiter which they name Palumbarius. Its form is long and slender ; the lonians call it Cymindis. Of it furthermore Homer makes mention in the Iliad, wherein he says :— The Gods know it as Chalcis, men say Cymindis. Some there are who would make this very bird none other than the Ptynx. By day it shews itself but little, since it does not see clearly, although it hunts by night, after the manner of the Aquila; yet with the Aquila so keenly does it strive, that frequently both birds fall to the ground clutching each other, and are caught alive by shepherds. It lays two eggs, and nests in cliffs and caves'^ ^ Turner evidently means the Common Sandpiper {Actitis hypo- leucus). 2 Sundevall says that Kiilb thought that this bird was the Hawk Owl, but himself refers it doubtfully to the Glossy Ibis {Plegadis falcmellus), which however is not a night bird and does not live on hills. Belon and Gaza thought that it was an owl of some kind. [p. 48] DE COLL VRIONE. KoWvplcov, collurio, Anglice, a feldfare aut a felde- fare. Quibufdd German, frammefuogel. Aristoteles \ Collurio ijfdem, quibus merula uefcitur, magnitudo eius eadem quae fuperioribus, id eft, uireoni & mollicipiti^ capitur potius hyberno tempore. Auis^ quam colhirionem ejje puto, turdum magnitudine cequat, fed eaudam habet longiorem, & magis mobilem, & pedhts maeulofum. In ceflate apud nos aut raro aut nunquam uideUir: in liyeme uero tanta copia eji, tit nullius aids maior fit. baccis aquifolicE arboris, forbi minimcB, & fimilium arborum uefcitur. gregatim uolat, & inter uolandum objirepera ejl. DE COLVMBIS. Hepcarepd, columba, Anglice a doue, Germanice ei)U taube. Saxonice tn)U buue. Aristoteles l Liuia, [P- 49] Palumbes. Vinago. Turtur. Columbacei uero generis plures fpecies funt. Eft enim liuia a liuore didta, diuerfum certe a columba genus, quippe minor quam columba fit, & minus patiens manfuefcere : liuet enim plumis, & pene nigricat, & pedibus rubris fca- brofis(J$ eft. Quas ob res, nullus id genus cellare alit. Maximo inter hqc genera funt corpore palumbes. Secundum magnitudinis locum ui- nago obtinet, paulo maior quam columbus^ eft. Minimum ex his turtur eft. pariunt columbae omnibus anni temporibus, pullosq? educant fi locum apricum habeat & cibum. Sin minus. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 99. 2 These five words are not represented in Aristotle. Moreover the rrapdaXos is here omitted, and is placed later (p. 107 of the original work), but there seems to be some doubt as to the correct reading in the Greek. ^ Hist. An. Bk V. 43. The readings vary in places, but the rendering is decidedly free. ^ Gaza and Turner make indiscriminate use of ‘ Columbus ’ and ‘ Columba’ for the same kind of bird. Of the Collurio. Ys.6\Xvpi(£iv, collurio, in English a feldfare or a feldefare. According to some Germans eyn krammesvogel. Aristotle. The Collurio feeds on the same meat as the Merula. Its size is that of the aforesaid kinds—that is, the Vireo and the Molliceps—it is caught chiefly in the winter time. The bird which I consider to be the Collurio equals a Thrush in size, but has a longer and more flirting tail, also a spotted breast. Rarely or never is it seen with us in summer: yet its plenty is so great in winter that of no kind is there more. It eats the berries of the Holly, the Least Service, and like trees. It flies in companies, and on its flight is very noisy. Of Doves. Uepiarepd, columba, in English a dove, in German eyn taube, in Saxon eyn duve. Aristotle. Of the Dove-kind, however, there are many sorts. For first there is the Livia, named from its livid colour, which is certainly a different kind from the Columba, inasmuch as it is smaller and less ready to be tamed : and it is livid in its plumage, verging upon black, and has moreover red and roughened feet. Wherefore nobody keeps this kind in cotes. Of greatest size among the several sorts are the Palumbes ; the Vinago holds the second place herein, a little bigger than the Columbus. The smallest of them is the Turtur. The Columbae breed at all times of the year, and rear their young, if they have but a sunny place and food. If otherwise they breed [p- 50] Liuia. Palumbes. [P* 51] Tpvywu. Turtur. sedate tantummodo foetant. Sed proles prae- flantior uere eft, quam autumno, deterrima sedate, & omni tempore calidiore. De ijfdem in alio libro ^ ad hunc modum fcribit^ Alia frugibus uiuunt, ut palumbes, columbus, uinago, turtur. Vifuntur femper columbi, atque palumbes, fed turtur sedate tantu^ hyeme fe condit, latitat ^ enim fuo tempore. Vinago autumno & confpicitur, & capitur, cui magnitudo maior, quam columbo, minor qua palumbi ed. IleXeta?, quce liuia Latine dicitur, eji fyluejlris illa columba, quam Angli a Jlocdoue, & Germani eV)U E)o(l3 taube nominant. ^arra, Latine palumbes Jiue pahtmbus, didia ab Anglis a coushot a ringged done, & a Germanis t\)\\ viiigd taiibc appellatur. Hcec longe aliter atque luiia nidtdattir. Nidificat autem lutia in cauis aliquando arboribus, interdiLm & in templorum muris. Palumbes uerb in coiidenfa hedera, aut fuper ramum arboris ex pauctdis lignicidis tranfuerfim pofitis, tenuijfimum nidum conjlruit. Quod fi quis mihi pariim hac in re fidat, torquatos columbos esse palumbes ueterum, Arifiotelem diligentius legat, & Martialem^ po'dam de ijfdem ita fcribentem audiat. Inguina torquati, tardant hebetantf palumbi Non edat hanc uolucrem, qui uolet effe falax. Politianus^ de palumbis ita fer ibit: Dum fua torquates repetunt diSlata palumbes. Turtures in Germania funt multo frequentiores qua in Anglia. Turturem Angli & Saxones communi uocabido turtel buue nominant. 1 Hist. An. Bk VIII. p. 45. ^ The Greek is (^coXet ydp. But how far Aristotle referred to birds ‘hibernating’ is very doubtful. Epigr. Lib. XIII. Ixvii. ^ A poet and scholar of the Renaissance. only in summer. Yet in spring the young are better than in autumn, they are worst of all in summer and at every hotter season. Of the same he writes in another book after this manner:— Other birds live on crops, as the Palumbes, the Columbus, the Vinago and the Turtur. The Columbi and Palumbes may be always seen, the Turtur only in the summer. In the winter it lies hid, for it conceals itself at the due time. But the Vinago is both seen and caught in autumn, of which bird the size is greater than that of the Columbus, but less than that of the Palumbes. ETeXeia?, which in Latin is called Livia, is that dove of the woodlands which the English name a stocdove, and the Germans eyn holtztaube. ^arra, in Latin Palumbes or Palumbus, is called by Englishmen a Coushot or a Ringged Dove, and by Germans named eyn ringel taube. It nests far otherwise than does the Livia, for that bird sometimes breeds in hollow trees and sometimes even in the walls of churches. But the Palumbes builds a nest of the frailest of a few small twigs laid crosswise in a mass of ivy or upon a bough. Now in this thing if there be anyone who places little confidence in my opinion that our collared doves are the Palumbes of the ancients, let him read with greater care his Aristotle and give ear as well to Martial the poet writing thus of the same birds :— Ringed doves make a man’s loins slow and dull ; Who would be lusty should not eat this bird. Politian writes of the Palumbi thus:— While ringed doves seek again their accustomed haunts. Turtle Doves are much more plentiful in Germany than in England. English and Saxons in common call it turtel duve' Vinago. Olvd^, qiicB Latine ninago dicitur, miJii nunqud Jiaclenus uifa eji, nec quid habeat nominis apud nojiros, aut apud Germanos compertum habeo. Vidi tamen Venetijs columbos hijs nojiratibus fefquialtera portio7te maiores: fed hos non tdnagines fuiffe credo, fed columbos e Campania ad Venetos aduedlos, ubi Plinhis columbos fcribit effe gra7idiffimos. DE CO T VENICE. opTv^, coturnix, Anglice a qjiale, Germanice e^U mac^tel Plinius \ Coturnix parua auis, & cum ad nos uenit, terreftris potius quam fublimis. Aduolant & fimili modo, quo grues & ciconiae, non fine [p. 52] periculo nauigantium, cum appropinquauere terris. Quippe uelis faepe infidunt, & hoc femper no6lu, merguntcj? nauigia. Coturnicibus, uera- tri, fiue ut alij legunt, ueneni: femen gra- tiffimus cibus, quam ob caufam eas damna- uere menfae, fimulcj^ comitiale propter morbum defpui fuetum, quem fol^ animaliu fentiunt praeter hominem. Quce, quum ita fe habeant, demiror quis mahis genius Britannis meis in mentem immifit, 7it eas tantopere in deliciis habeant, qiium tot malis, ueiieno fcilicet, et comitiali morbo, illaru caro fit obnoxia. Co- tjumix perdici fimilis efi: fed nmltis partibus minor. Coturnix, 7d fcribit Arifiot. hoc fibi peculia^^e & proprium liindicat, tU & ingluuiem, & g2ilam prope uentri- cuhim amplam & latam habeat. 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxiii. « Olva^, in Latin called Vinago, has never met my eye up to this time, nor have I yet found out what name it bears among our countrymen or among Germans. But I have seen doves in Venice half as big again as those of our own land, although I do not think that they could be Vinagines, but birds brought to those parts out of Campania, where Pliny notes the Doves to be exceeding large. Of the Coturnix. opTv^, coturnix, in English a quale, in German eyn wachtel. Pliny. The Coturnix is a little bird, and, when it comes to us, keeps on the ground more than aloft. Yet it flies hither just as Grues and Ciconiae, not without danger to sea-faring men, when they approach the land. For these birds often settle on the sails, and that always at night, and so sink ships. The seed of Veratrum, or, as others read. Venenum, is a very grateful food to the Coturnices, and for this cause men have condemned them for the table; furthermore it is the custom for them to be spurned on account of the falling sickness, to which, they alone of animals, save man, are subject. Now since these things are so, I marvel much what evil genius put it into the mind of my fellow Britons to esteem them thus among their delicacies, when their flesh is liable to ills so many, namely poison and the falling sickness. The Quail is like the Partridge, although many times smaller. As Aristotle writes, it claims a property peculiar to it of having both crop and gullet large and wide near to the stomach. DE CORNICE. KopwvT], cornix, Anglice a cro2tu, Germanice e\)n frae, & fraeg. Cornix auis eji omniuora, 7iam car7tes, pifces, & grana mterdiun 7iorat, circa littora 7naris, & ripas jlmnhiiirn multu7n iierfatur, iit ea a7ii77ialia, quoe [p- 53] 7inda eiecit, ta7igat. Cor7iix tota 7iigra eJl. & i7tedia inag7iitMdi7ie mter 7nonedula7n & corinim. EJi & 7narina qncEda7n cor7iix, q7ia7n aliqui Jiy- be7mam cornicem uocant, capite, cauda, & alis 7iig7'is, ccEtera cmeria: an hanc aliquando uiderint Arijhteles & P Imius, dubito: 7iam de ea 7mfqua7n mentione77i fecerunt. Superejl adhuc <Sf alia cornix graniuora, roflro albo, ccetera iiigra. Hac airepiioXoyov, id efl, frugilegam Ariftotelis Longolius effe coniecit. DE CORVO. Kopa^, coimus, Anglice a rauen, Germanice ei)n rabe. Coruus, quum fit auis cornice maior, tota nigra & caimiuora, omnibus fatis notus efl. Coimi locis arctioribus & ubi fatis pluribus non fit, duo tathm incolunt, & fuos pullos ciim iam poteflas uolandi efl, primiim nido eijciunt, deinde I'egione tota expellunt. Pant coruus quatuor aut quinq',. DE CVLICILEGA. Y^vnroXoyoc;, culicilega, Anglice a uuagtale, Gei'- manice traffev ftel^. ei)U quiffter^. Aristoteles \ Culicilega, magnitudine eft quata fpinus, [p. 54] colore cinerea, diftindla maculis, uoce parua, quae & ipfa lignapeta '^ eft. Culicilegam effe iudico auiculam, quam aliqui motacillam nuncupant, eft autem illa albo & nigro uaide 1 Hist. An. Bk viii. 44. ^ The Greek is %(tti 8e kql rovro ^vXokottov. Of the Cornix. Kopcovrj, cornix, in English a crow, in German eyn krae and eyn kraeg. The Crow^ is an omnivorous bird, for it eats flesh and fish and sometimes grain; it much frequents sea-coasts and river-banks, that it may there obtain those animals which the tide has thrown up. The Crow is wholly black and is midway in size between a Daw and a Raven. There also is a certain Sea Crow, which some call the Winter Crow^, with black head, tail, and wings and the remainder grey: but whether Aristotle or Pliny ever saw this bird I am uncertain, for they have not mentioned it in any place. Ihere still remains another Crow^, a grain-eater, with white beak, but black otherwise. Longolius conjectured this to be Aristotle’s o-irepfioXoyo^^, that is frugilega. Of the Corvus. K6pa^, corvus, in English a raven, in German eyn rabe. The Raven, inasmuch as it is bigger than the Crow, quite black, and a flesh-eater, is sufliciently well known to all. In places with less space, and where there is not room for many. Ravens dwell only in pairs, and, when their young have just gained power of flight, the parents first banish them from the nest, and later drive them out of the whole neighbourhood. The Raven has a brood of four or five. Of the Culicilega. KvtiroXoyo^'^, culicilega, in English a wagtale, in German eyn wasser steltz, eyn quikstertz. Aristotle. The Culicilega is a bird of the same size as the Spinus, ash-coloured, and marked with spots : its voice is poor ; moreover it pecks wood. The Culicilega I judge to be that little bird, which some name Motacilla, inasmuch as it is variously marked with ^ The Carrion Crow {Corvus corone). ^ The Hooded or Grey Crow {Corvus cornix). ^ The Rook {Corvus frugilegus). Sundevall thinks that this bird is Certkia familiaris. T. 5 diJlinCta, cauda longa^ quam femper motitat, degit plurimum ad ripas fluminum, ubi mufcas captat & uermi- eidos, qidn & aratrum uermium caufa /equitur, quos uerfat & exhibet cum gleba aratrum. DE CVCVLO. }L6kkv^, cucidus, Anglice a cukkouu, & a gouke, Germanice e^n fuffuef. Aristoteles \ Cuculus ex accipitre fieri, immutata figura, a nonnullis putatur: quoniam quo tempore is apparet, accipiter ille, cui fimilis efl, non afpi- citur. Sed ita fere euenit, ut ne caeteri item accipitres cernatur cum primam uocem emifit cuculus, nifi perquam paucis diebus. Ipfe autem breui tempore ^flatis uifus, hyeme no [p. 55] cernitur. Eft hic neque aduncis unguibus, ut accipiter, neqj capite accipitri fimilis: fed ea utraque parte columbum potius quam accipitrem reprsefentat. Nec alio quam colore imitatur accipitrem, nifi quod maculis diffinguitur, ceu lineis, cuculus uelut pun6lis. Magnitudo atqj uolatus fimilis accipitru minimo, qui magna ex parte non cernitur per id tempus, quo cuculus apparet. Na uel ambo una uifi aliquando funt. Quin etiam ab accipitre interimi^ cuculus uifus eft, quod nulla auis fuo in genere folet facere, pullos cuculi nemo ait fe uidiffe. parit tame, uerum non in nido, quem ipfe fecerit, fed 1 Hist. An. Bk vi. 41—44. ^ Aristotle has KareaOiofievos. black and white, and it has a long tail, which it is always jerking. It mostly haunts the banks of rivers, where it catches flies and little worms; moreover it follows the plough for the sake of the worms which are turned up and laid bare with the clod. Of the Cuculus. K 6kk,v f, cuculus, in English a cukkow, and a gouke, in German eyn kukkuck. Aristotle. By some the Cuculus is thought to come by change of form from an Accipiter^ since, at the season when the former appears, the Accipiter which it resembles is not seen. But commonly it so falls out that the other Accipitres are likewise absent when the Cuculus utters its earliest cry, save for a very few days. Further the bird itself is only seen for a short time in summer ; it is not observed in winter. Nor has it the claws hooked as an Accipiter, nor yet a head like an Accipiter : but in both of these parts it counterfeits a Columbus rather than an Accipiter. In naught but colour does it imitate the Accipiter, except that in its marks, it is distinguished as it were by lines, the Cuculus by spots. The size and mode of flight are like those of the least of the Accipitres, which for the most part at the time wherein the Cuculus appears, is not to be observed. Yet on occasion both have been seen at once. The Cuculus, moreover, has been known to be struck down by the Accipiter, which thing no bird is ever wont to do to one of its own kind. Nobody says that he has seen young of the Cuculus, and yet it breeds, although not in a nest which it has made itself: but sometimes 1 Such a tradition is still common in many parts of this country and on the Continent. 5—2 interdum in nidis minorum auium, & oua, quae aliena reperit, edit: maxime uero nidos palu- [p. 56] bium petit, quorum & ipforum oua efu abfumit, fua relinquens : parit maiori ex parte fingula oua, raro bina. Curucae quoque in nido parit, fouet ilia & excudit & educat. Quo quidem praecipue tempore^ & pinguis & grati faporis pullus cuculi eft. Genus eorum quoddam nidos facere procul in petris excelfis, praeruptiscj? affolet. Cucuhim hic nobis fatis graphice depinxit Arijloteles^ Curuca a fi curncam eadem diligentia defcripfiffet, non fuiffet titlyng. hodie tajn omnibus fere mcognita qua 7iunc efi. Ego fufpicor Anglorum titlingam effe curucam Arifiotelis. Nam nullam auem in uita frequentius cucidi pullum fequentem, & pro fuo educantem^ quam illam obferuaui. Efi autem illa lufcinia minor, fed eadem corporis figura^ colore fubuiridi^ cidices & uermiculos in ramis arborum fedlatur^ raro humi confifiit^ hyeme non cernitur. De crece ex Aristotele". [p- 57] Sed cu omnibus quaterni digiti fint, tres parte priore habentur, unus parte pofteriore pro calce, ut tute fit, qui minutus ineft ijs, quae longa habent crura, ut in crece euenit^ Eft** autem crex moribus pugnacibus, ingenio ualens ad uidlum, fed caetera infoelix. Efi aids qucedam apud Anglos, longis cruribus, ccBtera coturnici, nifi quod maior efi, fimilis, qucB in fegete & lino, uere et in principio cBfiatis non aliam ^ This apparently means ‘when in the nest.’ How then does Aristotle say that ‘no one has ever seen the young’? The passage may be an interpolation, as may be another which follows referring to Hawks. If so, the fact of nesting on rocks may also refer to Hawks, and be a further interpolation. 2 Hist. An. Bk 11. 46. 2 ‘ ut...evenit.’ These words are not in Aristotle. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 91. in the nests of smaller birds, and it devours the eggs of the others that it finds. It mostly seeks the nests of the Palumbes and eats those birds’ eggs, leaving its own behind. For the most part it lays a single egg or rarely two. It also lays in the Curuca’s nest, and that bird sits upon the eggs, hatches and rears the young. And at that time indeed the offspring of the Cuculus is both particularly fat and of a grateful flavour. A certain kind of Cuculus is wont to make its nest far off on steep and very lofty rocks. Here Aristotle has portrayed the Cuculus to us most graphically, and, had he described the Curuca in the same careful way, it would not at this day have been so little known to almost everyone as now it is. The Curuca of Aristotle I suspect to be the Titling^ of the English. For I have observed no other bird in life more frequently than this following the Cukkow’s young and rearing it, as though its own. Now it is less than the Luscinia, but with the same figure of body, and in colour somewhat green ; it hunts for gnats and little worms among the boughs of trees. It seldom settles on the ground, and is not seen in winter. Of the Crex from Aristotle. But seeing that all birds have four toes each, three are directed forwards and one backwards by way of a heel, for safety’s sake; the last is very small in such as have long legs, as happens with the Crex. Further the Crex is of pugnacious habit, clever in procuring food, but of bad omen otherwise. There is a certain bird in England with long legs, otherwise like a Quail, except that it is bigger, which in spring as well as early summer makes no other cry among the corn and flax ^ It IS impossible to say with certainty what Turner’s ‘Titlyng’ was; but probably he meant the Tree-Pipit, which he confounded with the Titlark. habet uocem, quam crex crex: hac enim uocem femper inge7ninaty qiLam ego Arijiotelis crecem effe puto. Angli auem illam uocant a daker hen, Germani et)n nufqua^n in Anglia niji in fola Noidhumhrta 2iidi & audiui. De Diomedeis avibus ex Plinio \ Nec Diomedeas praeteribo aues. lubacata- radlas uocat, & eis effe detes, oculos45 igneo colore, caetera cadidos trades. Duos femper [p- 58] ijs duces, alterum ducere agmen, alterum cogere. Scrobes excauare roftro, inde crate cofternere, & operire terra, quae ante egefta fuit, in his foetificare. Fores binas omniu fcro- bibus, orientem fpedlare, quibus exeant in t occafum pafcua, f occidentem, quibus redeant. Aluum exoneraturas fubuolare femper, & contrario flatu. Vno hae in loco totius orbis uifuntur, in infula, quam diximus nobilem Diomedis tumulo, atque delubro, contra Apuli^ oram, fulicarum fimiles. Aduenas barbaros clangore infeftant. Graecis tantum adulantur, miro difcrimine, uelut generi Diomedis hoc tribuetes, aedemcj? eius quotidie pleno gutture madetibus pennis perluunt. DE FICEDVLA. [p. 59] '^vKaXG, ficedida Latine didla, 71011 eji Germanorum fneppa., quee locis gaudet humidis, & /olis uei'- 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xliv. than crex crex, and moreover it repeats this sound incessantly; I think that it is Aristotle’s Crex. This bird the English call a Baker Hen, and the Germans eyn schryk\ I have not seen or heard it anywhere in England, save in Northumberland alone. Of the Aves Diomede^ from Pliny. And I will not omit the birds of Diomede", which Juba calls Cataractae, telling us that they have teeth and fire-coloured eyes, but otherwise are white. They always have two captains, one to lead the band, the other to bring up the rear. These birds dig furrows with the beak, then cover them with wattlework, and hide this with the earth thrown out at first; in these places they breed. Each furrow has two openings, one facing east, by which they may go out towards their feeding grounds, the other facing west, by which they may return. They always flutter out to disburden the belly, and against the wind. In one place only of the whole world are they to be seen, namely that island which we have set down as famous for the tomb and shrine of Diomede, over against the shore of Apulia. They are like Fulicae. Strangers who come there they attack with clamour, only on the Greeks they fawn, with wonderful discernment, paying as it were this tribute to the race of Diomede, and every day they purify his shrine with brimming throats and water-laden wings. Of the Ficedula. Su/caXt?, in Latin called ficedula^ is not the sneppa of the Germans, which delights in wet localities, and feeds only 1 Schlegel {Vog. Nederl. ii. 6o) says that, the Dutch schriek is the Water Rail {Rallus aquaticus\ but Turner evidently means the Corn Crake {Crex pratensis). Naumann {Naturg. Vog. Deutschl. ix. p. 496) gives Schrecke as a local name for the Corn Crake. 2 Apparently Shearwaters of some species are meant. For the story see any work on Mythology. 2 For the supposed change of Ficedula into Atricapilla, see p. 39. mihiis uefcitur: fed atdcula Germanortim grafmiifcho fimilis, ficiibus 6f uuis tddlitds, tit pidchre his uerfibus Mardads^ tejlatiir: Cum me ficus alat, & pafcar didcibus uuis, Cur potilis nomen non dedit uua mihi ? DE FRINGILLA. ^irl ^a, fringilla, Anglice a chafiinche, a sheld appel, a fpink, Germanice ei^ii buc^ftnf. Fringillce, autore Arijiotele, cEjiate tepidis locis, & hyeme, frigidis degunt, & inde puto apud Latinos nomen accepiffe, quod in frigore plures conuolantes apud nos cernantur, quam ceflate. Pafcerem magnitudine cequat, uarijs coloribus, albo nempe, uiridi & ruffo diflinfla e fi. maris pedlus rubefcit, fmnincE pallefcit: cantat mas primo uere. Nidulatur fringilla in fummis fruticum ramis, aut arborum infimis, nidumq-, intus ex lana, forisq\ ex mufco facit. DE MONTIFRINGILLA. Opoairi^rj'^, motifringilla, Anglice a bramlyng, Germanice eijXK rot))ert. Aristoteles l 60] Montifringilla fringillae fimilis eft, & magnitudine proxima: fed collo coeruleo eft, & in montibus degit, unde nomen accepit. Auicula, quam ego montifringillam effe credo, fringillce magnitudine & corporis figura fimilis efi: fed mas in collo plumas habet ccxruleas, quas no ceque prompte in foemina deprcehendas. Rojirum luteum efi, & alcE uarijs coloribus, albo, nigro, & luteo nimirum diftinguutur, ut auriuittis. Vox illi infuauis & Jiri- dula efi. 1 Epig. Lib. XIII. xlix. 2 Hist. An. Bk viii. 41. on worms^; but is a little bird like the grasmusch of the Germans, living upon figs and grapes, as Martial prettily bears witness in these lines;— Since the fig gives me nourishment, and I feed on sweet grapes, Why has the grape not rather given me a name ? Of the Fringilla. 'ZTrl^a, fringilla, in English a chafhnche, a sheld-appeF, a spink, in German eyn buchfink. Fringillae—on Aristotle’s authority—in summer haunt warm places, and in winter cold ; and thence I think that they received their name among the Latins^, for when it is cold more are seen flocking round us than in summer time. In size the bird equals a Sparrow and is marked with various colours, namely, white and green, and russet. In the male the breast is ruddy, in the female pale. The male sings in the early spring. The Fringilla nests upon the highest boughs of shrubs or on the lowest boughs of trees, and fashions its nest inwardly of wool and outwardly of moss. Of the Montifringilla. 'Opoa7r[^7)<=;, montifringilla, in English a bramlyng, in German eyn rowert. Aristotle. The Montifringilla is like the Fringilla, and similar in size, but with a blue neck ; and it lives in mountains, whence it has its name. The little bird which I believe to be the Montifringilla, in size and shape of body is like the Fringilla, but the male has blue feathers upon the neck, which one cannot perceive so quickly in the hen. The beak is yellow, and the wings in truth are marked with various colours, yellow, black and white, as in the Aurivittis. Its note is unmelodious and grating. 1 See p. 35. 2 Shell-apple, or Apple-sheiler is still a Northumbrian name for the Chaffinch. The word ‘sheld’ may mean ‘parti-coloured.’ 2 Here Turner’s mistaken etymology {Fringilla a frigore) is evident. De Floro ex Aristotele \ Anthos, fme florus, uermibus pafcitur, & magnitudo illi, quanta fringillae eft. uidlitat circa aquas & paludes, & ei color pulcher eft, & uita commoda, odio equum habet, pellitur enim ab equo pabulo herbae, qua uefcitur. Nubeculans, nec ualens oculorum acie eft, quippe qui uocem equi imitetur, atque aduolans [p. 61] equum fuget: fed interdum excipiatur occi- datur(J$ ab equo. In aegithum florus tantum odium gerit, ut ne mortuarum auiu fanguis poffe mifceri dicatur. DE FVLICA. Ke7r^o9,y^//^r<^, Anglice a uuhitefemaim tmith. a hlak cop. Germanice, ei)n mett)e. Rece?itiores Grcect, qui poji AriFotelem fcripferunt, larum & cepphum eandem auem fecerunt, ut Erafmus in Adagio, \apo<^ /c€7r(l)o<;, ejv Ariftophane^ & eius interprete oftendit. A rijioteles uero duas facit diuerfas aues libro de hijioria animalium odlauo his uerbis, ecFTL Se \apo<s o XevKo^ koX /ceTrc^o?. lam qua nam ratione autores if os concilie, nefcio, nifi dicam poetas rerum peculiares & proprias notas, & difcrimina, philofophis multo negligentiiis obferuantes, aues corporis figura, natalibus, & uidlus ratione fimiles, licet manifefiis notis differ entes,eafdem aues feciffe, quas feueriores philosophi ad amufiim omnia expendentes, in diuerfas fpecies dif- tinxerunt. Sed inter huius cetatis grammaticos, non minor efi opinionum uarietas de fulica, quce'nam illa fit, quam [p. 62] inter Gr(Ecos de nomine controuerfia fuit. Sunt enim ^ Hist. An. Bk viii. 41 and Bk ix. 18, 22, freely rendered. ^ Pax, 1. 1067. By ‘interpreter’ is evidently meant the Scholiast, who says that the Proverb is used of those who promise much, and perform little. Of the Florus from Aristotle. The Anthos, that is Florus, feeds on worms ; its size is that of the Fringilla. It gets victual round waters and marshes ; its colour is fair, and its life easy to it. It holds the Horse in hatred, inasmuch as it is driven by the Horse from the grassy pastures where it feeds. It is purblind and nowise keen of eyesight, while it imitates the neighing of the Horse, and flying at it puts the Horse to flight, yet sometimes it is caught and then killed by the Horse. The Florus has so great a hatred of the Higithus that it is stated that the blood of these two birds, even when dead, cannot be mixed. Of the PTlica. Ke7r(^o9, fulica, in English a white semaw, with a black cop, in German eyn wyss mewe. The later Greeks, who have written after Aristotle, have made the Larus and the Cepphus the same bird, which fact Erasmus in his Proverb \dpo<; /ce7r(/)09 shews, from Aristophanes and his interpreter. But Aristotle in the eighth book of his History of Animals keeps the two birds distinct, using the following words:—‘'There is the \dpo^ that is white, also the fceircpo^.” Now in what way to reconcile these authors I know not, unless I say that poets who observe more negligently than philosophers the peculiar properties of things, and their diversities, have made these birds the same, which are alike in form of body, breeding-time, and way of feeding, although differing in manifest respects, whereas philosophers, more strict than they, gauging all things exactly, have distinguished them as different kinds. And yet there is not less diversity of opinion among the critics of our day about the Fulica, and what that bird may be, than there was controversy among the Greeks about its name. For there are teachers of a sort^ in Lower 1 ‘ Literatores ’ is here apparently used in a somewhat scornful sense. Angloru lapuuinga. in inferiori Germmiia literatores aliqui, qui fulicam kymiittam fuam effe uohmt, ex eo forfan opinionem fuam adfiruentes, quod apud Plinium fulicoe cirrum tribui legef'int. Efl autem Germanorum kyuuitta cornice minor, plumis fere uiridibus, et nigris per totum dorfum et caput et colhl: tientre albo, longa, & femper eredla in capite: crifia plumea, alis obtufioribus, & inter uo- landum 7nagnum flrepitum edentibus, imde & uarmellus a barbaris dicitur: aquis uermiurn gratia, quibus folis tnclitat, appropinquat, fed ipfas 7to?i mgreditur, in planis & in locis erica confitis, plurimmn degit. Ad depopidandum uermes, nojirates in hortis fcepe alunt. Sed hanc effc fulicam no7i patitur, quod Vergilius de fidica Georgicorum p7dmo ^ ad liimc 77iodui7i fcribit: lam fibi tum curuis male te7nperat tmda carmis, Ciim 7nedio celeres reuola7tt ex cequore niergi, Clamore77if, feru7tt ad littora, cumf, 7nari7icE l7i ficco ludimt fidicce. Hmc fatis liquet kyuuittam noit effe fulicam, quu7}t 71071 fit aids marma 7iec aquatica. Non defimt qui fidicam galli7ia7n illairi 7iigram aquaticam, alba m fronte inacida, effe uolimt. Sed ijii Vergil, et Arifio- [p. 63] telis aid07dtate facile erroris conui7icu7itur, quorimi alter aimn facit 7narina7n, alter, nempe A rifloteles lib. odlauo hifioidce ani7naliu7n, apud 7nare tduere teflatur. Quai'e quum palufiris illa gallina 7ieque aids fit marina, neq-, apud mare uiPtum petat, fed in flagnis, paludibus, & recentibus aquis perpetuo degat: nec Vergilij fulica, nec A rifiotelis Ke7r(f)o<^ effe poterit. Sed iam reflat, ut qua77i auem fulicam effe indicent, ofiendam. Efl aids marina, magnitudine inonedidce, fed alis acutioribus & loiigioribus, colore tota albo, excepto nigro, quem in capite gerit cirro: rojiro etiaiit & pedibus puniceis. Hanc ego fcepe in mari nauigans, ex eo ^ Lib. I. 1. 360—3. Germany, who will have it that the Fulica is their Kywit, possibly resting their opinion on what they have read in Pliny of a tuft being attributed to the bird Fulica. The Ky wit of the Germans is, however, smaller than a Cornix, with the plumage almost green and black on the whole back and head and neck, the belly white, a long and always upright feathery crest upon the head, and somewhat rounded wings, which during flight make a great hurtling, whence it is even named by foreigners Vannellus. It approaches waters for the sake of worms, on which alone it feeds, but does not enter them. It mostly lives in open country, and in places overgrown with heather. Our people often keep this bird in gardens, to destroy the worms. And yet what Vergil in this manner writes in the first book of his Georgies of the Fulica will not permit this bird to be his Fulica :— “And now the waters scarce restrain themselves from the ships’ curving keels, while the swift Mergi wing their way once more out of the Ocean’s midst, bringing their noisy voices to the shore, and while the Fulicee, frequenters of the sea, disport themselves on land.” Hence it is clear enough that the Kywit is not the Fulica, since it is not a sea-bird nor a water-bird. There are not wanting those who would have that black Water Hen, with a white frontal patch, to be the Fulicah But on the strength of Vergil and Aristotle such are easily convicted of mistake, for one of these makes it a sea-bird, and the other, namely Aristotle in the eighth book of his History of Animals, bears witness that it lives about the sea. Wherefore, since that Marsh Hen is neither a sea-bird nor seeks its food about the sea, but constantly haunts pools, and marshes, and fresh waters, it can neither be the Fulica of Vergil nor the Keir<f)o^ of Aristotle. But it still remains that I should shew what bird I judge the Fulica to be. There is a sea-bird^, like a Daw in size, but with the wings sharper and longer, wholly white in colour, save for a black patch which it bears on the head, and with the beak and feet of purplish red. I often, journeying upon the sea, have had ^ Le. the Coot {Fulica atra). ^ The Black-headed Gull {Larus ridibundus). te7npore^ quo liifiorimn animalimn Arijlotelis legeram, conjtderaui, tii prcefertim, quajtdo uel deficiente uento, uel flante contrario, emiffla anchora, uentum flequundi- orem qideflcentes expeclauimus. Hcec ftatim foluta anchora, gauijs co7nitata aduolat, ex purga^nentis nauis eiedlis, eflcce nonnihil fibi promittens, diutino clangore defatigata, tandem keph profert, ut lari cob, unde d fioflris marini cobbi dicuntur. Fieri potefl, ut in fulicarum ge^iere quceda^n fint cinerece, licet Plin. ubi ex autoritate lubce Diomedeas aues, fulicis fimiles albas effle tradit, uideatur fulicas omnes albas facere, na^n 64] non de eo, quod rarius, fed frequentius accidit, in genere loqu-untur clafici fcriptores. Nidulatur lari & fulicce in eifde7n locis, in excelfis 7iempe petris, & ma7dnis rttpibus, DE GAVIA. Adpo<;, gaiua, a fe cob or a feegell. Gauiariun duo ge7ie7^a Ariflot. facit: alteru7n album, quod apud 7nare, alteru77i cineriu7n, quod circa lacus & fluidos idFtimi qucErit, Gaidam albam d fidica- paridn diffe7're arbitror, /olo ni7niru7n cir7'o et rofro. Gatda cinerea, qucE ad flu7nina & lacus afcendit, que- rida femper & clamofa efl. pifcicidos captat & uer7nes ad ripas lacuimt, hidus ge7teris efl & alia pa7nia aids, nofrati lingua flerna appellata, quce inarinis laris ita fimilis efl, ut fola magnitudine & colore ab illis differre iddeatur: efl enim if e larus, marinis 7ninor & nigrior. Tota ceflate tam impivbe clamofa ef, quo teinpore parturit, ut iuxta lacus & paludes degentes, immodico clamore tantum no obtundat, hac ego fane auem effle ci'edo, eidus improba garinditas adagio. Larus partuidt, locum fecit, uolat fere peipetub fuper lacus & paludes, nunqud quiefeens, fed pi^cedce femper inhians. Nidulatur hcec in denfis arundinetis. Marince gauice in petris & inipibus maritimis nidifleant. this bird in mind, from the time that I read Aristotle’s History of Animals, and then especially when through the wind failing or blowing contrary, the anchor being dropped, we have been calmly awaiting a more favourable wind. The anchor being weighed this bird immediately flies to us in the company of Gulls, promising something to itself by way of food out of the refuse cast forth from the ship ; at last exhausted by its constant cries it merely utters “ keph,” as Gulls cry “cob.” And hence they are called Sea-Cobs by our countrymen. It may be that some of the race of Fulicse are grey, though Pliny, when on the authority of Juba he relates that the birds known as Diomede’s are white like Fulicae, seems to put down all Fulicse as white; for classical authorities speak not in any class of what more rarely, but of what more frequently occurs. Gulls nest in the same places as do Fulicae, forsooth on lofty crags and rocks about the sea. Of the Gavia. Aapo?, gavia, a se cob or a see-gell. Aristotle makes two kinds of Gaviae, one white, which seeks its food about the sea, the other grey, which seeks it round the lakes and rivers. Now I think that the white Gavia differs but little from the Fulica, only indeed as to the hood and beak. The grey Gavia, which comes up to our rivers and lakes, is always querulous and full of noise. It catches little fishes and eats worms upon the banks of lakes. There is another small bird of this kind, called StenP in local dialect, which is so like the sea Lari that it seems to differ from them only in its size and colour; for it is a Larus, though smaller than the sea Lari and blacker. Throughout the whole of summer, at which time it breeds, it makes such an unconscionable noise that by its unrestrained clamour it almost deafens those who live near lakes and marshes. This I certainly believe to be the bird whose vile garrulity gave rise to the old Proverb “ Larus parturit.” It is almost always flying over lakes and swamps, never at rest, but always open- mouthed for prey. This bird nests in thick reed-beds. The sea Gaviae breed on crags and rocks about the sea. ^ The Black Tern {Sterna nigra). [p. 65] DE GALERITA. Ko/ol'So?, t] KopvBa\6<;y Ang. a lerk or a lauerocky Germa. e^n (or(^. Plinius naturalis hijlorice tcndechno libroy galeritam Gallico uocahuloy pojlea alaudam effe didlam ojiendit. quare galeritce potius uocabidOy quam alaudcB Latinis utendum effe ex autoritate Plinij cenfeo. Aristoteles de galeritis \ Galeritarum duo funt genera : alterum terrenum criftatum, alteru gregale, nec fmgulare more alterius, uerum colore fimile, quaquam magnitudine minus, & galero cares, cibo uero idoneu, galeritae nunqua in arbore confiftunt, fed humi I Prizes hoc A riflotelis gezius izariam habet in uarijs regionibus criftamy alictzbi femper apparentezn : in alijs locis talemy zit pro arbitratu fuo pojfit erigere aut depo- nerCy quu uzia eademf fit utriufq', auis magnitudo. & galeritam hazze znaioremy Azzgliproprie lercazzi zzoznizzant. a uuilde Alterzizn gezzus AristoteL a nofiris fera alaziday a lercoraheth Q^-y^^anis ^eib zzozzziziatury izz planis & locis ezdea [p 66] eonfitisy & ad ripas lacuuzUy uerznuizn cazifay qzdbus ziidlitaty zziagzza ex parte degit. Duplo fezd fzipezdore minzis efiy & rofiro tezizdy & carzze lozzge fizazdffizna. a uuodlerck. Super eft tertiuzzi galeritce genus y Gerznazzis coperUy a logijfizna criJlUy zit arbitrory ita diPtuzny A rifioteli plane izzcogziituzn : zzazzz przus A riflotelis genus effe non potefiy qzda znizior eft quazzi ut illud effe pojfit: znizihs autem illud genus effe zzozi potefiy quia galezmm habety qui Arifiotelis pofieriozd gezzeri deefl. Quare galerita iftay Arifioteli fzdt incogztita. Et cuzn Coloziienfes aziczipes coperam {quee medice eft magzzitudiziis inter Arifiotelis ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. loi. 2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 66. Of the Galerita. KopuSo?, i) KopvBa\6<;, in English a lerk or a laverock, in German eyn lerch. Pliny, in the eleventh book of his Natural History, has shown us that Galerita^ taken from a Gaulish word, was called Alauda afterwards, wherefore I think that on Pliny’s authority the name of Galerita should be used by those who write in Latin rather than Alauda. Aristotle, of the Galerita. Of Galeritae there are two kinds, one is a crested ground-bird, but the other lives in docks, not singly as the former. Yet in colour it is similar, though of a smaller size, and not having a crest. Moreover it is fit for food. The Galeritae never sit upon a tree, but always on the ground. The first kind given by Aristotle has in different lands a different crest, in one place always evident, elsewhere such that the bird can raise or lower it at will, although the size of either is one and the same. This larger Galerita Englishmen call the Lerc proper, while Aristotle’s second sort is by our countrymen named a Wilde Lerc, and by the Germans a heid lerch ; this for the most part lives in open country, and in places overgrown with heather, and on banks of lakes, for the sake of the worms on which it feeds. This bird is smaller by nearly one half than the aforesaid, with a slender beak, and flesh by far the sweetest. There still remains a third kind of Galerita, the Copera of the Germans, thus named I believe from its very long crest, and certainly unknown to Aristotle, for it cannot be his first kind, inasmuch as it is smaller than that bird can be; likewise it cannot be the smaller sort, because it has a crest, which is not present in the latter kind. Wherefore this Galerita was unknown to Aristotle. And since the fowlers of Colonia [Cullen] with one accord assure us that the Copera (which is midway in size between Aristotle’s crested Galerita ^ Galerita is usually supposed to have some connexion with the Latin galea = a helmet. T. 6 galeritam crijlatam, & non crijiatani) concordibus ad- jirment fujfragijs, hanc mdld habere peculiarem canti- unc2ilam^ fed inepte aliarum, quibuscum indlitat, auium uoces referre, adducor plane ut credam hanc effe recen- tiorum Gr(Bcorum corydon, cuius in fequenti adagio mentio eft evaixovGLp koX Kbpvho<^ (j^Oeyyerat, & in hoc uerfu: el KVKVW hvvarai K6pvSo<; TrapairXrjaiov aSecv. Na galerita maior, pidchre & fuaidter cantat, & minore7n cantu non miniis ualere tradunt aucupes. Hcec igitur quum iwce nihilpofpt, fed inepte tantum aliarum uoces, fuo garritu mentiri, recentiorum Greeeorum erit corydos. [p. 67] DE GALLIS ET gallinis. A\6/cT(op, gallus, Anglice a cok, Germanice ei)n ^an. AXeKTopi^, gallina, Anglice a hen, Germanice, e^n f)en. Saxones dicunt ^on. Varro ^ de re rustica libro tertio. Ruflicce galling. Gallinae rufticae, funt in urbe rarae, nec fere manfuet^ fine cauea uidentur Romae, fimiles Villatice. facie non his uillaticis gallinis noftris, fed Africanis afpedtu, ac facie incontaminata. In ornatibus publicis folent poni cum pfiticis ac merulis albis, item id genus rebus inufitatis. Neque fere in uillis oua ac pullos faciunt, fed in fyluis. African^. Gallinae Africanae, funt grandes, uariae, gib- Meleagrides. berae, quas Meleagrides Graeci appellant. Hae nouiffimae in triclinium ganearium introierunt, [p-68] e culina propter faftidium hominu. Venerunt^ propter penuriam magno. De tribus generibus, gallinae faginantur maxime uillatic^. Eas in- 1 Undoubtedly the reading should be :—eV diJLov(TOLs = a.mong those with little voice. Both these proverbs are to be found in the Adages of Erasmus, Chil. II. Cent. ii. 92. 2 Bk III. cap. ix. 3 No doubt a misprint for ‘ veneunt’ = are sold. and the non-crested) has no song of its own, but feebly imitates the notes of other birds with which it feeds, I am assuredly led to believe that it must be the Corydos of the later Greeks, of which mention is made in the proverb below:— ^vajiovai<s /cal 6 /c6pvBo<=; (^deyyerac, and in this verse :— 6L /cv/cv(p Bvvarac /c6pv8o<; irapairXrjcrLov aBeiv. For the larger Galerita sings fairly and sweetly, and the fowlers say that in its song the smaller kind is worth no less. Wherefore the third kind, since it has no power of voice except feebly to imitate the voices of the others by a twitter of its own, will be the Corydos of the later Greeks. Of the Galli and Gallinas. 'AXe/crcop, gallus, in English a cok, in German eyn han. \\Xe/cTopt(;, gallina, in English a hen, in German eyn hen. The Saxons say eyn hon. Varro, in his third book de re rustica. The wild Gallinae are rare in a city, and are scarcely seen at Rome tame, unless in a cage : they are not in appearance like the Gallinae of our country- houses, but in look recall the African, and have the face unmarkedk During public festivities these birds are wont to be exhibited with Psitaci, white Meruit, and other unfamiliar kinds of that description. They do not usually lay their eggs or hatch their young at country-houses, but among the woods. The African Gallinae, which the Greeks call Meleagrides, are big, speckled, and hunch-backed. They have been the last to enter the dining room of eating- houses from the kitchen through people’s fastidiousness. And from their rarity they have advanced to a great price. Of the three kinds those of the country-house are chiefly fattened. These they keep shut up in ^ It is impossible to reconcile the statements of Varro and Columella as they stand. Various alterations of the text, which is possibly unsound, have been suggested. 6—2 Gallus medicus a bauncok or a cok of kynde. Cohortalis. Ruftica. [P- 69] Africana. Africas. [P- 70] eludunt in locum tepidum & anguftum & tene- brofum, quod motus earum & lux pinguedini inimica, eledlis ad hanc rem maximis gallinis, nec continuo his, quas Melicas appellant falfo, quod antiqui ut thetim thelim dicebat, fic Medica Melica uocabant. Hae primo Medicq dicebantur, quia ex Media propter magnitudinem erant allatae. Columella \ Gallinarii ali^ funt cohortales, ali^ rufticq, alie Africanq. Cohortalis eft auis, quae uulgo per omnes fere uillas confpicitur. Rustica, quae non diffimilis uillatic^, per aucupem decipitur, ea4? plurima eft in infula, qua nautae in Ligufhico mari fitam, produdto nomine alitis, gallinaria uocitauerunt. Africana eft, quam plerique Numidicam dicunt, meleagridi fimilis, nifi quod rutilam galeam, & criftam capite gerit, quae utraque in Meleagride funt coerulea. Plinius l Simili modo pugnant Meleagrides in Boeotia. Africae, hoc eft gallinarum genus gibberum, uarijs fparfum plumis, qu^ nouiffim^ funt peregrinarum auium in menfis receptae, propter ingratum uirus: uerum Meleagri tumulus nobiles eas fecit. Aristoteles l Item Hadrianae paruo quidem funt corpore, fed quotidie pariunt. Ferociunt tamen & pullos faepe interimut. Color his uarius. Oua^ ^ De re rustica^ Lib. Vlil. cap. ii. ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxvi. 3 Hist. An. Bk vi. i. a warm, narrow, and dark place, for exercise and light hinder the fattening. The largest birds are chosen for this purpose, and not always those which men mistakenly call Melicae, because the ancients, as they used to say Thelis for Thetis, also used to call Medica Melica. At first they were called Medicae because on account of their size they were brought hither out of Media. Columella. Of Gallinae some are court-yard birds, others again are wild, others are African. The court-yard bird is that which commonly is seen at nearly every country- house. The wild sort, which is not unlike that of the country-house, is trapped by bird-catchers. It is abundant in the island lying in the Ligurian sea, which sailors, lengthening the bird’s name out, have called continuously Gallinaria. The kind from Africa, which many call Numidica, is like the Meleagris, save that on its head it bears a helmet and a crest of red, but in the Meleagris both of these are blue\ Pliny. In a like way the Meleagrides fight in Boeotia. The Africae, that is a hunch-backed kind of Gallinae, are sprinkled here and there with variegated feathers ; and they are the last of foreign birds to be received at table, on account of their unpleasant flavour : but the tomb of Meleager has ennobled theml Aristotle. Likewise the Hadrianic birds are small indeed in body, but they lay their eggs daily. Yet they are fierce and often kill their chicks. They are of varied ^ See Art. Guinea Fowl in Prof. Newton’s Diet. B. p. 399. 2 The reader may here be referred to any work relating to mythology. [p- a kok of inde. 86 Galli et GallincE—Gallinago alia candida funt, ut columbarum & perdicum, alia pallida, ut paluftrium, alia pundlis diftindla, ut Meleagridum & phafianorum. In paucis ijiis, qiws recenfui mitoribuSy no pauccB funt de rebus^ quas tradlauere^ cotrouerfice. Varro priinil gallinas rujiicas non uillicatis^ fed Africanis fimiles ejfe fcribit. Columella ante rufticam non dif- fomilem effe uillaticce tradit. Varro Africanas^ me- leagrides facit, quod & Plinius etiam facere uidetur. Columella autem uarijs notis Africanas a meleagridi- bus difiinguit. Arifioteles Hadrianas gallinas facit uarias, ut Plinius itidem facit, & paruo corpore. Varro Africanas, quas non alias effe conflat quam Hadrianas, uarias & grandes facit. Verum tanta autorum inter fe difjidia componere, penes me non efi. Sed quid de generibus ifiis fentiam, paucis aperiam. Gallina apud nos rufiica nufquam reperitur, fi gallina illa, quam morhennam uocant non fit, quam uarijs de caufis 71] ante attagenem effe conieci. ColumellcB meleagrides uidentur ilice effe aues, quas nonnulli pauones Indicos appellant: nam illas Pauls'^ & criflis coeruleis effe, in confeffo efi. DE GALLINA GINE. Acr/caXooTra^, gallinago, Anglice a uuod cok, Germanice ^)ol^ fnepjf. Aristoteles l Gallinago per fepes ^ hortorum capitur, magnitudine quanta gallina eft, roftro longo, colore attagenae, currit celeriter, & hominem mire diligit. Haec in arbore nunquam® fedet, & humi nidulatur. ^ A misprint for ‘ uillaticis.’ ^ Perhaps the reading should be galeis, cf p. 69, 11. 6—7. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 102. 66. ^ Aristotle has in addition—ep/<ecri = in nets. colouring. Of certain kinds of birds the eggs are white, as those of Columbae and Perdices, others are pale, as those of marsh-birds; others marked with spots, as those of Meleagrides and Phasiani. In those few authors, whose works I have scanned, not a few of the things which they have treated are disputable. First Varro tells us that the wild-bred Gallinae are not like those of country-houses, but the African ; while Columella states that the wild sort is not unlike that of the country- house. Varro makes the Africanae to be the Meleagrides, which Pliny also seems to do. Yet Columella separates the Africanae from the Meleagrides by various characters. And Aristotle makes his Hadrianic fowls of various colours, as does Pliny also, and of little size. But Varro makes the Africanae big and of varied colours, though it is quite clear that they are nothing but the Hadrianic birds. But after all it is not in my power to adjust the mutual differences of authors, when so great; and yet in a few words I will disclose what I think of these kinds. The wild Gallina is not found with us in any part, if it be not that w'hich they name Morhen, and this I formerly conjectured to be the Attagen for several reasons. The Meleagrides of Columella seem to be those birds which some call Indian peacocks^ for they are admitted to have wattles and blue crests. Of the Gallinago. ’Ao-/caXft;7rap, gallinago, in English a wod cok, in German eyn holtz snepff. Aristotle. The Gallinago is taken among the hedges of our gardens ; it is of the size of a Gallina, but has a long bill, and the colour of the Attagena: it runs with speed, while it is wonderfully fond of man. This bird never sits on a tree and it nests on the ground. ^ Turner was, of course, wrong in his conjecture. 2 Turner makes cr/coXoTra^ the same as ao-Kciko^na^. Gallinagines apud nojirates nunquam, niji hyeme tudenttir, quare de prole & 7nodo nidula^idi, nihil habeo, quod died. Capitur apud Anglos diluculo potijjimuin & crepufculo in fyluis, retibus in loco arboribus uacuo, fufpenjis, & ueniente aue demipis. De colio, sive galgulo \ ut vertit Gaza, EX Aristotele. [p. 72] Galgulo magnitudo quanta fere turturi eft: color luteus, lignipeta hie admodum eft, mag- na'que ex parte macerie" pafeitur, uoce emittit grandem, incola maxime Peloponefi h^c auis eft. Omnia, quee Arijioteles haCtenus colio, fiue galgulo tribuit, Anglorum huhulo, & Germanorum griinfpechto (^Ji incolam maxime ejje Peloponefi exceperis^ conue- niunt. Nam turturem fere magnitudine cequat, lignipeta eji: maceriem contundit, & uocem grandem emittit. Sed nihil hic definio, fed inquiro tantum. Galgulus Plinio iPteros Greece dicitur, & Arifioteli,fi Theodoro fidimus, etiam /ceXeo?. Quanquam mihi textum Grce- cum confidenti, aha auis k6\l6<^, <Sf aha KeXeof; uidetur: nam koXlo^ icrrl ^vXokotto^ acjyoSpa, edi vefieraL eirl TMv ^vXcov ra TToXXd. Id eft, colius eft tignipeta ualde, & magna ex parte ad ligna pafeitur, 0 fev ydp reXeo^; Trapd TTorap^ov olfcel /cal X6Xpia<;^, quee uerba Theodorus circa fruteta & nemora reddidit fed reltdne an feciis, doTtis indicandum relinquo. Vidi in Alpibus abieti infidentem auem, magnitudine turturis, uiridibus uel- uti maculis in luteo diftinTlam, quee tota corporis effigie [p. 'jT\ picti Martium retulit, fed caput reliquo corpori {fecus 1 Hist. An. Bk VIII. 44. 2 Possibly a misprint for ‘materie.’ ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 22. In his errata Turner alters to xi^ox^J^as, but evidently he means Xoxfj-as. Woodcocks are never seen with us save in the winter, wherefore I have naught to say about their young or mode of nesting. They are chiefly caught in England in the woods at daybreak and at dusk, by means of nets hung in some place devoid of trees, and dropped when the bird comes. Of the Colius, or Galgulus, as Gaza renders IT, FROM Aristotle. Of the Galgulus the size is almost that of the Turtur: it is yellowish in colour, and hacks timber very much, and for the most part feeds on trees : it utters a loud cry. This bird is mainly an inhabitant of the Peloponnese. All that Aristotle has so far attributed to the Colius or Galgulus is in agreement with the Huhol of the English and the Grunspecht of the Germans (if one may except its being chiefly an inhabitant of the Peloponnese). For it is nearly equal to the Turtle-Dove in size; it hacks the timber, hammers rotten wood, and utters a loud cry. But I give no decision here, I only ask. The Galgulus of Pliny is said to be called the Icteros in Greek, and if we trust to Theodorus [Gaza] is also the /ceXeo? of Aristotle. Though, on consulting the Greek text koXlo^ seemed to be one bird, and /ceXeo?^ another, for the reading was :—ko\i,6<; ian ^uXo/cotto? acj^oSpa^ /cal vefieraL eirl tmv ^vXwv to, iroXka. That is, the Colius is especially a wood-hunter and for the most part feeds on wood, 0 fiev yap AceXeo? irapa iroTapuov oIksI /cal Xop^yLta?, which words Theodorus renders ‘‘ around the thickets and the groves,” but whether rightly so or otherwise I leave to be decided by the learned. In the Alps I saw sitting upon a fir a bird of the size of a Turtle-Dove, marked as it seemed with green patches on yellow, which to me in the whole aspect of the body called to mind the Picus Martius, save that its head was like in colour to the rest of its body ^ Turner appears to have had a text with the word KeXeos in one place instead of koXlos. go Colitis, sive Galgulus—Graculi atq\ in pico Jit) colore fuit fimile, tibijs fuit breuihus, et capite ere£lo, & rojiro longiufculo. An hcec galguli fpecies fiterit, nihil Jlatiio, fed fuijfe fufpicor. DE GRACVLIS, Erafmus in eruditif/irno adagiorum opere, quoties koKoio^ occurrit {occurrit aiit non raro)graculum reddit. Theodorum Gazam hac in re, licet alias libenter, minime fecutus, qui koXolov femper monedulam uertit. Ego quoq-, hac in re Erafmum potilis quam Gazam, uarijs de caufis, imitari decreui: Aristoteles secundum translationem Gaz^ \ Monedularum tria funt genera : unum, quod graculus uocatur, magnitudine quanta cornix, roftro rotundo, rutilo. Alterum, lupus cognominatum, paruu & fcurra. Tertium, quod familiare, Lydiae ac Phrygiae terrae, idemcjj palmipes eft. [p. 74] Primum graculorum genus, quod Grceci /copaKiav uocant, Plinio Pyrrhocorax eft, Anglis a cornish choghe, Germanis et)n bergbol, cornice paulo minor eft, roftro luteo, paruo, & in fine nonnihil adunco, frequens eft in alpibus, G apud Anglos in Cornubia, uocem habet monedula acutiorem, & magis querulam. Secundum genus \vko<^ Kal ^co/jlo\6xo^, Greece ditium, Latinis proprie monedula, quali monetula a moneta dicitur, quam fola Monedula. ’ ^ ^ Plin. li. IO. auium, ut inquit Plinius, furatur. Aurum non omnia tria genera furantur, fedfecundum genus tantum, quare (otherwise than it is in Picus), and the legs were short, the head was upright, the beak rather long. As to whether this may have been a kind of Galgulus, I do not certify, but I suspect it to have been. Of the Graculi. Erasmus in his very learned work on Proverbs, as often as Ko\oio<^ occurs (and it occurs not seldom) renders it by Graculus, in this thing following by no means Theodorus Gaza—though at other times he does so freely—who in every case renders /roXoto? by Monedula. And in this thing I also have determined for divers reasons here to imitate Erasmus rather than Gaza. Aristotle according to the translation of Gaza. Of Monedulae there are three sorts: the first, which is called Graculus, in size as big as Cornix with a curved red bill. The next, also named Lupus, small, and a mimic. The third, which is well known in Lydia and Phrygia, is web-footed. Now the first kind of Graculi, which the Greeks call /ropa/cta?, is the Pyrrhocorax of Pliny and the Cornish Choghe of Englishmen, eyn bergdol of the Germans. It is a little smaller than the Cornix, with a yellow bilP, not large, and somewhat hooked towards the tip, it is abundant in the Alps and in Cornwall in England. It has a sharper and more querulous cry than the Monedula. The second sort called \vKo<^ and /9a)/xoXo;)^o9 in Greek, is by the Latins strictly named Monedula, as if it were Monetula, from the Moneta [money] which alone of birds, as Pliny says, it steals. The three kinds do not all steal gold—only the second does— 1 Here there is an evident confusion between the Chough {Pyrrhocorax graculus) with its red bill, and the yellow-billed Alpine Chough {P. alpinus). fecundum genus foluni erit monedulay de cuius furacitate pidchre etid his uerfibus fcribit Ouidius^: Mutata eft m auem^ quce nunc quoq; diligit aurum. Nigra pedes, nigris uelata monedida pennis. Monedula Angli uocdt, a caddo, a chogh or, a ka. Germ, e^n bo(, G Saxon. vCjW dlfe. Multo minor efi pyrrhocorace 7nonedida, & in fyluis 7iidtdatur, & in Phalocro- cattis arboribus, & in templorii turribus. Tertium genus, corax. Arifioteles 8 libro hiftoricB animalium^^ ita defcribit: Palmipedum grauiores circa lacus & amnes uerfantur, ut anas, phalaris, urinatrix. Ad h^c [p- 75] bofca fimilis anati, fed minor, & qui coruus appellatus eft, cui magnitudo quanta ciconiae, fed crura breuiora, palmipes natanscj^ eft, colore niger, infidet arboribus & nidulatur in ijs. H^c Ariftoteles. Contus ifle, nifi fallar, Plinio phalacrocorax efi, & Heluetiorum Vualtrapits, de quo Plin. ad hitnc modum fcribiT: lam & in Gallia Hifpaniaq^ capitur attagen, & per alpes etiam, ubi & phalacrocoraces, Balearium infularum peculiares: ficut & alpium pyrrhocorax. Et alibi de eodem^: Quaeda animalium naturaliter caluent, ficut Phalocro- ftruthiocameli, & corui aquatici, quibus apud corax .i. coruus cal- Graecos nomen eft inde, uus. 1 Metamotph. Lib. vii. 11. 467—8. 2 Bk vlli. 48. 3 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlviii. ^ Op. cit. XI. cap. xxxvii. wherefore this second kind alone shall be Monedula ; moreover Ovid happily describes its thievish habits in the following lines :— Was changed into a bird, which even now loves gold, Monedula the black of foot, in plumage black arrayed. The English call the Monedula a Caddo, Chogh, or Ka ; Germans eyn dol; and Saxons eyn alke. The Monedula is much smaller than the Pyrrhocorax, and nests in woods and hollow trees and towers of churches. The third kind is thus described by Aristotle in the eighth book of his History of Animals :— Of vv^eb-footed birds the heavier haunt lakes and rivers, as the Anas, Phalaris, and Urinatrix. Add to these the Bosca, which is like the Anas but smaller, and that which is called Corvus, whose size is that of a Ciconia, but it has shorter legs ; it is web-footed and a swimmer : black in colour, it perches on trees, and nests in them. So far Aristotle. Unless I err, this Corvus is the Phalacrocorax of Pliny and the Swiss Waltrapusk of which Pliny writes after this fashion:— Further, the Attagen is caught in Gaul and Spain, and even on the Alps, where Phalacrocoraces also are, proper to the Balearic isles, as the Pyrrhocorax is to the Alps. And in another place of the same bird :— Some animals are naturally bald, as Struthiocameli and Corvi Aquatici, whence is their name among the Greeks. 1 Mr Rothschild identifies this bird with Comatibis comata = C. eremita (L.), no doubt rightly. See Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, xir. p. 56. Novitates Zoologicce, 1897, p. 371, and Pliny, Lib. X. cap. xlviii. lam ut fciatis qualis nam auis Jit Heluetiorum Vualtrapus, quam conijcio phalacrocoi^acein effe, & ter- tium genus graculi^ auis ejl corpore longo, & ciconia paulo minore, cruribus hreuibus, fed crajjis, rojlro [p. 76] rutilo, pariim adunco, & fex pollices longo, albam quoque in capite mactdam, & ea^n nudam, nifi male memini, habuit. Si palmipes fit, & interdum natet, indubitanter tertium gracidorum genus effe adfirma- rem: uerum licet auem in manibus habuerim, an palmipes fuerit necne, & caluus, non memini: quare donec ifilicec certiiis notiero, nihil fiatuam, Procter hocc tria gracidorum genera ab Arifiotele defcripta, noui & quartum genus, quod in alpibus Rheticis uidi, Arifiotelis lupo minus, nigrum & albis macidis per totum corpus, more fiurni difiinPlum, gar- riditate fuperiora genera multum fuperans, femper in fylids & montibus degens: cui Rheti nucifragce nomen, a nucibus quas rofiro frangit & comedit, indiderunt. DE GRVE. Vepavo^, grus, Anglice a erane, Germanici fran / ober e^n frani(^. Aristoteles \ Alia de ultimis prope ueniunt, ut grues faciunt, quae Scythicis ad paludes Aegypto ^ unde Nilus profluit, ueniunt: quo in loco pug- [p- 77] nare cu pygmeis dicuntur. Non enim id fabula efh, fed certe genus tum hominum tum etiam equorum pufillum, ut dicitur eft, deguntcj^ in ca- uernis, unde nomen troglodytae, a fubeundis cauernis accepere. Grues ^ etiam multa prudenter faciunt: loca enim longinqua petunt, fui commodi gratia, & alte uolant, ut procul profpi- 1 Hist. An. Bk viii. 75—76. 2 A variant reading is ra aVco rrjs AlyvTrrov. 3 Hist. An. Bk IX. yo. Graculus nucifrag^ eyn nouf- brecher. And now, that you may know what sort of bird the Switzers’ Waltrapus may be, which I conjecture is the Phalacrocorax, and the third kind of Graculus, it is a bird long in the body, which is rather less than that of the Ciconia, and the legs short but stout, the bill reddish, a little hooked, and six inches in length—further it had a white spot on the head, and that, unless my memory fails me, bare. If it be web-footed and swim at times, I should affirm that it undoubtedly was the third kind of Graculus; but, though I have myself had the bird in my hands, I do not now remember whether it was web-footed or not, nor whether it was bald. Wherefore I will determine nothing, until I shall have a surer knowledge of these things. Besides the said three kinds of Graculi described by Aristotle I know a fourth, which I have seen upon the Rhaetic Alps, smaller than Aristotle’s Lupus, black and marked with spots of white on the whole body, as a Starling is; it far surpasses all the above-named kinds in chattering ; it always lives in woods and mountains. Now to this the Rhetians have given the name of Nucifraga, from the nuts which it breaks with its bill and eats. Of the Grus. Vepav6<^, grus, in English a crane, in German eyn kran, or eyn kranich. Aristotle. Others come almost from earth’s utmost parts, as do the Grues, which come from the Scythians to the Egyptian marshes, whence the Nile flows forth : in which place they are said to fight with Pygmies. And this is no mere fable, but a.ssuredly there is, as it is said, a dwarf race both of men and horses, and they live in caves, whence they have got the name of Troglodytae, from dwelling in caves. The Grues furthermore do many things with prudence, for they seek for their convenience distant places, and fly high that they may look out far, and, if they shall cere poffint, & fi nubes tempeftatem'ue uiderint, conferunt fe in terra, & humi quiefcut. Ducem etiam habent, & eos, qui clament, difpofiti ^ in extremo agmine, ut uox percipi poffit. Cum confiftunt, cseteri dormiunt, capite fubter alam condito, alternis pedibus infiftentes. Dux de- tedlo capite, profpicit, & quod fenferit, uoce fignificat. Pipers. Vipiones Plin. dicuntur minores grues & iuniores, [p. 78] ut pipiones iuniores dicuntur columbcE. Apud Anglos etiam nididantur grues in locis palujiribus, & earum pipiones fcepijjime uidi, quod quidam extra Angliam nati, falfum ejje conte7tdunt. DE HIRVNDINE. XeXtSciiz^, hirundo, Anglice a fuuallouue, Germanice fc^n>alb. Saxonibus eji et)n fuxile. Aristoteles ^ Hirundo carnibus uefcitur, bis in anno parit, & tota hyeme latet. Omnino ratio brutorum, magna refert uitae human^ fimilitudinem ma- gisc^J in minori genere, quam in maiore, uideris intelligentiae rationem, quod primum in auium genere hirundo in effingendo coftituendoc^? nido oftendit, confingit implicito luto, feftucis ad normam lutariae paleationis, & fi quado luti inopia eft, fe ipfa madefaciens, uolutat in pul- [p- 79] uerem omnibus pennis. Stragulum etiam facit more hominum duriore primum fubijciens, & modice totum confternens, pro fui corporis magnitudine. 1 ‘ dispositi ’ is here apparently attracted to ‘ qui.’ 2 Four passages are incorporated in Turner’s selection:— Hist. An. Bk viii. 39, Bk vi. 36, Bk Vlii. 107 and Bk ix. 5 i, 52. Grzis—Hirtmcio have seen clouds or a storm, betake themselves to earth, and take rest on the ground. They have a leader also and those who, disposed at each end of the band, may call out, that their voice may be perceived. The others sleep when they alight, with the head hidden underneath the wing, standing alternately on either foot. The leader gazes round him with uncovered head, and by his cry gives notice of whatever he perceives. The smaller, that is younger. Cranes are called by Pliny Vipiones, as young Doves are known as Pipiones. Cranes, moreover, breed in England in marshy places, I myself have very often seen their pipers \ though some people born away from England urge that this is false. Of the Hirundo. XeXtSwz/, hirundo, in English a swallowe, in German eyn schwalb. Among the Saxons it is eyn swale. Aristotle. The Hirundo feeds on flesh, and lays eggs twice a year, for the whole winter also it lies hid. The way of brutes upon the whole bears a marked likeness to the life of man, and more so in the smaller than the larger kinds. One may observe the understanding way which the Hirundo foremost in the ranks of birds shews in the constitution and construction of its nest. It builds it by applying mud to straws, after the rule of daub and wattle work, and if there ever be a scarcity of mud, it wets itself and rolls itself in dust with all its feathers. It moreover makes a bedding after the manner of men, first laying a foundation of the harder stuff below, and moderately covering the whole in proportion to its size. 1 Young pigeons are still called Pipers in England. T. 7 Plinius \ Hirundines luto conftruunt, ftramento roborant. Si quando inopia efl: luti, madefadlum Hirundinum multa aqua pennis puluerem fparuunt Ipfum primu genus. . , , . ^ uero nidum mollibus plumis flocciscjj confternunt, Secundu. tepefaciendis ouis, fimul ne durus fit infantibus pullis. Alterum genus eft hirundinum rufticarum & agreftiu, quae raro in domibus, diuerfos figura, fed eade materia nidos confingunt, totos fu- pinos, faucibus porredlis in anguftum, utero [p. 80] capaci: mirum qua peritia occultandis habiles Tertium. pullis, & fubfternendis molles. Tertium hirundinum genus eft, quae ripas t in terra foetificat. excauant, atque ita t internidificant. Non faciunt hae nidos, migratq^ multis diebus ante, fi futurum eft, ut audlus amnis attingat. De apodibus, ex Aristotele l Nonnullae aues depedes^ funt, quae ob eam rem apodes a paruitate pedum nuncupantur, quod genus auiculae, pennis plurimum ualet, ficut & caetera quoque prope fimilia, ut pennis praeualere, fic pedibus degenerare uidentur. ut hirundo & falcula fiue ripariaf Haec enim omnia, & moribus, & uolatu, & fpecie proxima [p. 81] inter fe confpiciuntur. Apparet apes omnibus Riparia fiue falcula anni temporibus: riparia aeftate tantum cum imber inceffit: tum enim & apparet & capitur. 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xxxiii. ^ Hist. An. Bk I. 10. ^ KaKOTTobe^ in the Greek. ^ These two words are probably interpolated. 99 Pliny. Hirundines build nests of mud, and strengthen them with straw. And if there ever be a scarcity of mud, they sprinkle a good store of water from their feathers on the dust, which is thus moistened. The nest itself they further line throughout with soft feathers and wool, to thus keep the eggs warm, and also that it may not be too hard for the young chicks. There is another sort of the Hirundines of the country and the fields, which rarely build their nests in houses, different in shape, but of the same material, and facing wholly upwards, having entrances prolonged into a strait with a capacious belly H it is wonderful how skilfully they are adapted for concealing young, and soft for them to lie upon. There is a third kind of Hirundines which bore in banks, and thus breed within holes. These make no nests, and migrate many days before, if it be likely that the stream in flood should reach them. Of the Apodes, from Aristotle. Some birds are weak-footed, and for that reason from the smallness of their feet are known as Apodes. This kind of little bird is very strong upon the wing, just as some others that are nearly like it seem to lose in strength of foot proportionately as they gain in power of flight, as the Hirundo and the Falcula, in other words Riparia. For all these in their habits, flight, and look seem very near each other. The Apes may be seen at all times of the year, but the Riparia only in summer, when the rains begin : for then it is both noticed and is caught. In ^ Pliny evidently refers to Hirundo rnftila^ which builds a flaskshaped nest against a cliff. 7 — 2 lOO deniqj rara haec auicula efl:. Apodes \ quos aliq cypfellos uocant, fimiles effe hirudinum, iam didlurn eft: haud enim ab hirundine difcerni poffunt, nifi quod tibijs funt hirfutis. Nidum fpecie ciftellae'^ produftae logius fidlae ex luto, imb aditu dato arftiffimo faciunt, idc^^ locis anguftis^ intra faxa & fpecus, ut & belluas, & homines poffmt deuitare. Plinius b Plurimu uolant, que apodes uocatur, quia caret ufu pedum. Ab alijs Cypfelli appellantur, hirundinum fpecie. Nidificant in fcopulis. Hae [p- 82] funt, quae toto mari cernuntur : nec unquam tam longo naues, tamcjj continuo curfu, recedunt a terra, ut non circumuolitet eas apodes. Caetera genera refidunt, & infiftunt: his quies nifi in nidis nulla: aut pendent, aut iacent. Hadtenus Plinius & Arijloteles, A rijioteles tria tantum Jiiriuidimmt genera facit: domefticas, apodes, & falculas. Plinius autem quatitor genera facere uidetur: domefiicas, rujlicas, apodes & riparias. Quod fi iterum fit, hiritndines do- meflicce, fanguinolento pePtore nobiles, eritnt primum genits. Secundum genits maximoe illcE & nigerrimcE hirundines gregatim pleritmg uolantes, facere uidentur. Tertiitm genus, hirundines qitce in f tmmis turribus & altis templorum feneftris niditlantur, ejficiunt. Qitar- tum genus riparice fiite falculce erunt. Qitbd fi ijia diuifio parum arrideat, ad primum genus referantur Hirudines hirundines ilice in domibus ritflicorum femper nidifi- domeflic^. cantes, qit(B a reliquis generibus, ditcE fanguinOlentcE 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 108. ^ Kvyf/'eXecriv is the word in Greek. 3 crrevM ; another reading is o-re7V(M = under cover. Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxix. Apodes. Apodes. short this little bird is rare. The Apodes, which some call Cypselli, are like Hirundines, as has been said before, for they are not to be distinguished from the Hirundo, save by having hairy legs. The nest which they construct looks like a little basket formed of mud somewhat drawn out, an entrance of the straitest opening beneath ; and this they place in cracks within the rocks and caves, that they may avoid both beasts and men. Pliny. The birds which, because they cannot use their feet, are called Apodes, live chiefly on the wing. They are named Cypselli by some, in aspect they are like Hirundines. They nest in crags. These are they which are seen on all parts of the sea, nor do ships ever leave the land upon so long or so continuous a course but that the Apodes still fly around them. The other kinds alight and settle, but for these there is no rest save in their nests alone, they either hang or lie. So far Pliny and Aristotle. Now Aristotle makes only three kinds of Hirundines, those of the house, the Apodes and the Falculae. Yet Pliny seems to make four kinds, those of the house, the Rusticae, the Apodes, and the Ripariae. If that be true, our House Swallows, well known from their blood-coloured breast, will be the first-named kind. Those very large and black Swallows, that mostly fly in flocks, appear to form the second kind. Those Swallows which make nests upon the tops of towers, and in lofty church windows, constitute the third. And the Ripariae or Falculae will be the fourth. But should the said division not approve itself, then to the first-named kind may be referred those Swallows which invariably build on the houses of the country people. Two patches of a blood colour, which one may see on each side maculce, qiias utrinqtie in pedlore tddeas, dijiingunnt, qiLod Oiiidius^ Ins tierjibtis pidchre ojlendit: [p. 83] Altera tecla fubit, nec adhnc de peclore ccedis Exceffere notce, Jlgnatap fang2n7ie pluma eft. Hoc pmnntni genus Angli a fuuallouu nominat & Ge7nnani t\)\\ f(^n)a(b. Apodes. Secundum genus faciunt apodes tarn maiores quam minores, maiores uoco maximas illas hirundines^ gre- gatim & altius cceteris uolantes, quce in arbore^ more hirundinum aliarum nunquam confifere uifuntur. minores uoco, qucE in /copulis, templorum fenefris ceditiori- bus & fummis turribus nidos figunt. Maiores Germani uocant ftx>alben, Angli the great fuuallouues. Minores A ngli uocant rok martinettes or chirche martnettes, Germani uocant tkd) fii>a(ben. Falcula fiue Tertium genus, quod in ripis nidulatur, Angli a riparia Jjank martuef, Germani 0)11 liber" flDaibe, aut f)3eiren nominant. De HAiMATOPODIBUS, EX PlINIO ^ Roftrum & praelonga crura rubra haemoto- podT funt, multo Porphyrione minori: quaquam [p. 84] eadem crurum altitudine. Nafcitur in Aegypto. Infiftit ternis digitis, praecipuum ei pabulum mufcae. Vita in Italia paucis diebus. Efi apud Anglos in locis palufiribus aids qucedam longis & rubris cruribus, nofira lingua redfhanca dicla, CUI an defcriptio hoemotopodis Pliniani conueniat necne, qui apud Anglos degunt, inuefiigent & examinent. DE IVNCONE. S^^olvlkXo^, iunco, Anglice a rede fparrouu, Germanice 0)11 vO)bt mup. Iunco, ut fcribit Arifioteles oPlauo hifiorioe animalium, & capite tertio, ad ripas lacuum & fluminum uiTlitat, & caudam frequenter motitat, & ex eodem confiat, auem effe paruam: nam turdo minorem ^ Metam. Lib. vi. 11. 669—70. ^ A misprint for ‘martnet.’ 3 A misprint for ‘ ufer.’ ^ x. cap. xlvii. « Another reading is ‘ Himantopus,’ but the Stilt-Plover has not a red bill. of the breast, distinguish these from the remaining sorts, as Ovid prettily sets forth in these verses:— “The other haunts our roofs, nor have the marks of slaughter yet departed from its breast, and its plumage is stained with blood.” The English call this first kind a Swallow, and the Germans eyn schwalb. The Apodes, the greater and the less, compose the second kind. I call greater those very great Swallows that fly in flocks, and higher than the rest, which are never observed to settle on a tree, after the manner of our other Swallows. I call less those which fix their nests to rocks, lofty church windows and the tops of towers. The greater kind the Germans call geyr swalben, and the English the Great Swallowes ; but the less the English call rok martinettes or chirche martnettes, the Germans kirch swalben. The third kind, that which breeds in banks, the English name a bank martnet, the Germans eyn ufer swalbe or speiren. Of the H/ematopodes, from Pliny. The Hsematopus has its bill and very long legs red, and is much less than the Porphyrio, though of the same height of leg. It is native in Egypt. It stands on three toes to a foot; flies are its favourite food. It lives in Italy but a few days. There is in marshy places in England a certain bird with long red legs, called Redshank in our tongue, but whether the description of the Hsematopus of Pliny agrees with this or not let those who live in England seek out and enquire. Of the Junco. 2%otVtA:Ao?, junco, in English a rede sparrow, in German eyn reydt muss. The Junco, as Aristotle writes in the eighth book of his History of Animals, and in the third chapter, lives on the banks of lakes and streams, and flirts its tail continually ; and it is clear from him that it is a small bird, for he makes facit. Ego igitiir quum ntUlani aliam nouerim aniculam, iuncis & harimdinibus iufidentem, prceter An- gloruni pafferem hariidinariiLin, illiLm mnconem effe ludtco, Auis ep parua, pajjere paulo minor, cauda longiufcida & capite nigro, ccetera fufca. De lingulaca, ex Aristotele\ Lingulaca, quae Graece yXwm? dicitur lin- [p. SsJguam exerit longam, unde nome habet, una eft e coturnicum ducibus, formam habet auium lacuftrium. De lagopode ex Plinio l Praecipuo fapore lagopus eft: pedes leporino uillo ei nomen hoc dedere. Cetero candidq^ columborum magnitudine, non extra terram"^, in qua nafcitur, eam uefci : quando nec uiua manfuefcit, & corpus occifq, fhatim marcefcit. Eft & alia, nomine eodem, a coturnicibus magnitudine tantum differens, croceo tindtu cibis t gratiffima. “faptiffima. Huius hoc uerfu Martialis^ meininit: Si meus aurita gaudet lagopede Flaccus. DE LIGVRINO SIVE SPINO. AkclvOl^, fpinus, pue ligurinus, Angltce, a grene pnche, ut conijcio, Germanice, el}n fireftncfe. Aristoteles [p. 86] Ligurini, & uita & colore ignobiles funt, fed ualent uocis amoenitate ^ & ex auium albo funt, que carduorum femine uefcuntur^ Florus, fpi- nus, & aegithus, odium inter fe exercet. Spinus etiam bellum cum afino gerit. 1 Hist. An. Bk viii. 83. ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlviii. 3 After ‘ dedere ’ substitute a comma for the full stop. 4 Pliny seems to have written ‘facile’ here, in addition. ^ E.pigr. Lib. vir. Ixxxvi. Three passages are here combined A71. viii. 42, IX. 22, IX. 92. The words of Aristotle are (ficovrjv fxewoi \L'yvpav €yov(jlv. 8 See p. 35. it less than a Turdus. Therefore, since I know no other little bird which sits upon the rushes and the reeds, save the Reed Sparrow of the English, I believe that kind to be the Junco. Now this bird is small, a little smaller than a Sparrow, with a longish tail, and a black head. The other parts are brown. Of the Lingulaca, from Aristotle. Lingulaca, in Greek called yXwrrL?, puts forth a long tongue, whence comes its name ; it is one of the leaders of Coturnices, it has the form of a lake- haunting bird. Of the Lagopus, from Pliny. The Lagopus is in flavour excellent, its feet shaggy as in a hare have given it this name. Otherwise it is white, in size as the Columbi; it is not eaten except in the land of which it is a native, since it is not tameable while living, and when killed its flesh soon putrefies. There is another bird of the same name, differing but in size from the Coturnices, most excellent for food with yellow saffron sauce. Of this Martial makes mention in the following verse:— If my Flaccus delights in the eared lagopes. Of the Ligurinus or Spinus. 'A/cavOU, spinus, or ligurinus, in English a grene finche, as I suppose, in German eyn kirsfincke. Aristotle. The Ligurini, commonplace in mode of life and colour, yet excel in pleasantness of song. And they are of the list of birds which feed on thistle-seed. The Florus, the Spinus, and the Aigithus shew^ mutual dislike. The Spinus wages war moreover with the Ass. io6 Ligitrimts sive Spimts—Lutea Spirium Arijiotelis grenefincam noftram effe arbitror: nam illa inter /pinas plurimum degit, & ex herbariLm feminibus uidlitat. Auis, quam /pinum e//e tudico, magnitudine paj/erem cequat, tota uiridis e/l, prcE/ertim mas in hoc genere, foemina fere pallida e/t. ue/citur carduorum maiorum /emine & lapparum, ut auriuittis minorum, nidulatur in ramis /alicu aut prunorum /ylue/rui, cantat amcene, & cibum 6f potu e fitidis haurire non recu/at. Sed obijciet mihi for/an qui/piam, hanc colore uiridi adeo/ amoeno, non po/fe /pinum e/fe, quem Arijioteles colore ignobilem ej/e tejiatur. Sciat uelim, qui hoc mihi obijcit, eundem Ari/otelem uiridem colorem damnare, etiam in aue, quce tota uiridis e/t, & a uiriditate nomen accepit. Verba Ari/lotelis^ hcec /unt: Vireo^, qui totus uiridis eft, docilis & ad uit^ munera [p. 87] ingeniofus notatur, sed male uolat, nec grati efl coloris. Hcec Arijioteles. DE LVTEA. X.\cbp€u<;, luteus fine lutea, Anglice a yelouu ham, a youidryng. Germanice geelgorff. Aristoteles. Luteus a colore partis fuae inferioris pallido didtus, magnitudine alaudae eft. Parit oua qua- tuor aut quinque. Nidum fibi ex fymphyto ftirpitus euulfo facit. Sed ftragulum fubijcit ex lana & uillo. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 98, 89. ^ XXcoplcov. I think that Aristotle’s Spinus is our Grenefinc, for it lives for the most part among thorns, and feeds upon the seeds of grasses. The bird which I believe to be the Spinus in its size equals a Sparrow, and is wholly green, and in this kind the male especially, the female being somewhat pale. It feeds upon, the seeds of bigger thistles and of burdocks, as the Aurivittis does upon the smaller ; and it nests on branches of the willow or wild plum. It is a pleasant songster, and does not refuse to draw its food and water up in little buckets. But some one may perhaps object to me that this bird with its green and somewhat pretty colour cannot be the Spinus, inasmuch as Aristotle testifies that it is commonplace in colour. I should like the man who thus objects to me to know that Aristotle equally condemns green colour even in a bird which is entirely green, and from its greenness has received its name. These are the words of Aristotle :— “The Vireo, which is entirely green, is singled out as easy to be taught, and clever for the business of life ; but it flies badly and its colour is unpleasing.” So far Aristotle. Of the Lutea. XXwpev^\ luteus or lutea, in English a yelow ham, a yowlryng, in German eyn geelgorst. Arlstotle. The Luteus, so named from the pale colour of its lower parts, is of the size of an Alauda. And it lays four eggs, or even five. It builds itself a nest of comfrey torn up by the roots, but spreads within a covering of wool and hair. 1 Aristotle in his History of Animals mentions three birds, ;^X(ypts', X^(opio)v, and : but Turner’s quotation with regard to j^Xcopeus- is found in Aristotle under in a passage {Hist. An. Bk ix. 83) where there seems to be no alternative reading. io8 L litea—L uteola—L iiscinia A idciila^ quarn ItUeum effe credo, paffere paido maior eft. Maris pedtus & uenter lutea funt: fcemince 2ierb pedtus lutettm, & uenter pallidus eft, in eapite dorfo & alis, pennis fufeis hitece intermifeentur. Rofrum utrique firmiLin dr breue, in quo tubercum quoddam dentem mentiens, reperias, prceter uermes, hordeo & auena libenter uefeitur. Cauda Indus aidculcE longiuf- eida ef, & frequenter motitans. DE LVTEOLA. 'K\cbpL<;, luteola, Angliee a fiskin, Germaidce eV)n [p. 88] quibusdam e^n engelc^en. Ltiteola, lutea Juperius deferipta, inulto minor ef, dr eolore ad tdriditatem magis tendente, pedlore luteo ef, dr rofro longiufculo, te^mi dr aeuto, attrudUis fmili, duas habet mac'idas nigras: alteram in fronte, alteram fub mento, eantillat non infuauiter. Kara apicd Anglos hcec ef, nee tifpiam feid alibi quam in eaueis eernitiLr. Semel tamen in Cantabrigian!s agris iddiffe reeordor. Hidus generis funt, quas A 7iglia aices canarias uocat. DE LVSCINIA. Kihoov, lufcinia, philomela, Angliee a nyghtyngall, Germaidee i\)\\ nac^tgal. Aristoteles \ Parit lufcinia aefhate quinq$ aut fex oiia, conditur ab autumno ufq3 ad uernos dies, lufcinia ^ canere folet affidue diebus ac nodlibus quindecim, cum fylua^ fronde incipit opacari. dein canit quidem, fed non affidub, mox adulta eftate uocem mittit diuerfam, no infuper ua- [p. 89] riam, aut celerem ^ modulatam43, fed fimplicem, 1 Hist. An. Bk, v. 31. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 255. 3 Aristotle has opos (mountain) here. ^ Or = harsh. The little bird, which I believe to be the Luteus, is somewhat bigger than a Sparrow. It is yellow on the breast and belly in the cock ; but in the hen the breast is yellow and the belly pale. Yellow are mixed with dark feathers upon the head, back, and wings. In each of them the beak is short and stout, and on it one may find a sort of knob that simulates a tooth. Apart from worms it eats barley and oats freely. The tail of this small bird is rather long and is in constant motion. Of the Luteola. luteola, in English a siskin, in German eyn zey- sich, or of some eyn engelchen. The Luteola is much smaller than the Lutea above described, and with a colour tending more to green. It has a yellow breast, a longish, slender, pointed bill, like that in Aurivittis, and two spots of black, one on the forehead, one beneath the chin ; it warbles with some sweetness. In England it is rare, and scarcely to be seen elsewhere than in cages. Yet I remember having seen it once among the fields of Cambridgeshire. Of this kind are those which England calls Canary birds h Of the Luscinia. luscinia, philomela, in English a nyghtyngall, in German eyn nachtgall. Aristotle. In summer the Luscinia lays five or six eggs, but from autumn it lies hid continually until the days of spring. Now the Luscinia is wont to sing incessantly for fifteen days and nights, when woods begin to become dark with foliage. Later it sings indeed, but not incessantly, then in the height of summer it gives forth a different note, not varied over and above, or quick and modulated, but a simple 1 Gesner, the first to describe the Canary-bird, states that Turner informed him of it. colore etiam immutatur, & quidem in terra Italia per id tempus alio nomine appellatur, apparet non diu, abdit enim fefe & latet. Ariftoteles prceter unmn notam nullam ojiendit pe- ctiharem^ qua ah altjs auibus lufcinia dijferret, ea autem ejl quod Imguee fummcE aeumme ca7^eat. Quan- quam & hoe etiam eum atrieapilla eomimme habet. Colore lufeinia, & eorporis magnitudine auictdam illam pi^oxime refert, quam Angli lingettam, & Germani Graefmufch. paffe7^em gramineum nominant. Paffere paulo minor eji, & tenuior, & longiori eorporis figura, color pedloris fere cinereus e ft, ccetera fidfufca. DE MERGO. AiOvia, mergus, Anglice a cormorant, German, t)U(5er. Aristoteles \ Pdergus marina auis eft, ex pifcium uenatu uidlitans, fubit tame altius in fluuios. Mergus [p. 90] & gauia ^ faxis maritimis oua bina aut terna pariunt. Sed gauiae seftate, mergi a bruma, ineunte uere. Incubant more caeterarum auium, fed neutra earum auium conditur. Mergus. Mergus, auis e fi magnitudine fere an fer is ptdla, rojiro longo & in fine adunco, palmipes efl, & corpore graid, forma corporis aid fe denti, ereCta eJl. Plinius in arboribus nididari fcribit, at Arifloteles in faxis maritimis. Quod uterq) aid uidit, aut a referentibus au- cupibus didicit, fcripto mandauit. Et ego utrumque obferuaui, nam in rupibus marinis iuxta hofiiu PincE fiuuij mergos nidulantes uidi, & in Northfolcia cum ^ Hist. An. Bk l. 6; Bk VIII. 48, freely rendered. sound. It also changes colour, and during that time is known, at least in the land of Italy, by another name ; it is not seen for long, since it conceals itself, and so lies hidden. Aristotle provides no special mark, save one, by which the Luscinia differs from the rest of birds, and that is that it lacks the point at the tip of the tongue. Though even this it has in common with the Atricapilla. In colour and in size of body the Luscinia comes nearest to that little bird which Englishmen call Lingett and the Germans Grass-Sparrow. It is a little smaller than a Sparrow and more slender, with a longer shape of body, and the colour of the breast is nearly grey ; the other parts are brownish. Of the Mergus. KWvta, mergus, in English a cormorant, in German eyn ducher. Aristotle. The Mergus is a sea-bird, and it lives by hunting fishes, yet it makes its way somewhat far up the rivers. The Mergus and the Gavia lay two or three eggs each upon rocks in the sea, the Gaviae in summer and the Mergi when the spring arrives after the solstice. They incubate like other birds, but neither of these birds conceals itself. The Mergus, a sad-coloured bird, is nearly equal to a Goose in size, with the bill long and hooked at the end ; it is web-footed, heavy in the body, and the attitude is upright in the sitting bird. Pliny writes that it nests on trees, but Aristotle says on sea-rocks. What each man saw or learnt from the reports of bird-catchers he has set down in writing. And I have observed both birds myself, for I have seen Mergi nesting on sea-cliffs about the mouth of the Tyne river, and on lofty trees in Norfolk with the ardeis in excelfis arboidbus. Qni in rupibus mai'itiinis nidificant, ex preeda marina fere uiu7lt, qui ^Le1p in arboribus, amnes, lacus, & fiuuios, addins caufia petimt. De merope ex Aristotele \ Merops. Sutit, qui meropes genitorum fuorum fene6lu- tem educare confirmant, uicemtj^ reddi, ut pa- [p. 91] rentes non modo fenefeentes, uerum etia cum iam datur facultas, alantur opera liberorum : nec matrem aut patrem exire, feci in cubili manentes, pafei labore eorum, quos ipfi genuerunt, enutrierunt, educarunt. Pennae huius auis inferiores pallidq funt, fuperiores coeruleae funt ut halcyonis: poftremae pinnule rubrq habentur. Parit fex aut feptem aeftate in prm- cipitijs mollioribus, intra uel ad quatuor cubita fubies, terrae etia cauernas fubiens, cunabula facit. PliniusI Nec uero ijs minor folertia, quae cunabula in terra faciunt, corporis grauitate prohibente fub- lime petere. Merops uocatur, genitores fuos reconditos pafcens, pallido intus colore penna- [p. 92] rum, fuperne cyaneo, priori fubrutilo. Nidificat in fpecu, fex pedum defoffa altitudine. Meropem ingenue fateor me nunquam tddififie, nec que quam coiLeniJfie, qid aliquando tdderit. Tarnetfi non fium neficius apud Germanos, grammaticos non indodlos, effie, qid grunfpeclitum fuum, meropem efifie doceant; fed Arifitotele & Plin. exclamantibus. Piceis uiridis nidum 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 82, freely rendered. ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxxiii. Herons^ Such as make their nests on sea-cliffs generally live on prey from the sea, but such as breed on trees seek rivers, lakes, and streams to get their food. Of the Merops, from Aristotle. There are some who insist that Meropes foster the old age of their parents and thus take their turn, so that the parents not in age alone are nourished by the labour of their offspring, but as soon as power is given to these: that neither does the mother-bird fare forth nor yet the father, but they stay within a resting place and are fed by the aid of those which they themselves have bred, nourished and reared. The plumage of this bird is pale beneath, but blue above like that in Halcyon : the pinnules at the end of the wings are reckoned red. It lays six or seven eggs in summer in the softer banks, and makes its nurseries by boring into these for quite four cubits, and it also uses hollows in the soil. Pliny. Nor truly is less skill shewn by those birds which make their nurseries in the soil, since the weight of their bodies hinders them from mounting to a height. The kind called Merops feeds its parents in retreat ; the colour of its feathers underneath is pale, the upper surface blue, the former being somewhat red. It breeds within a hole, bored out six feet in depth. In fairness I admit that I have never seen the Merops, nor have I met anyone who ever saw it. Still I am not unaware that there are not unlearned schoolmasters among the Germans, who would teach us that their grunspecht is the Merops, though against the sense of Aristotle and Pliny. ^ Compare with this Sir T. Browne’s Notes and Letters on the NaUcral FJistory of Norfolk (ed. Southwell) p. ii (1902). T. 8 fibi rojlro ftio in arboinbiLS facit: ubi enirnpicns arborem tundes, illam ex fono Jubcanam effe deprcelmidit, infante tempore partus, eam in qua pofea riididattnms ef, rofro perforat. Nulla itfpiam arbor tam alta ef, quam impediente tdla corporis graintate, non uolaUt traijcere pojft. PenncE hidus quoque fuperiores funt uirides, inferioresq',, nif male memini, lutece aut faltem pallidce funt. qitare qu7Lm merops prohibente corporis grauitate, in fublime petere, atq; ideo in arboribus nidulari non pofft, fuperne colore ft cyaneo, Germanorum picus uiridis, quem Britanni a faciendis foraminibus, huho- Meropem lam nominant, merops Arifotelis & Plinij effe non non effe poterit. Germanorum grun- DE MERVLA. fpechtum. KoTTTvcbop, menda, Anglice a blak ofel,a blak byrd, Germanice e\)n mcr(, aut ci)n amfef. [p. 93] Aristoteles l Merularum duo funt genera: alterum nigrum & uulgare: alterum candidum, magnitudine quidem compari, & uoce fimili, fed circa Cyle- nam Arcadiq familiare, nec ufqua alibi nafcens. Eft etiam ex hoc genere, quae fimilis nigrae efh, fed fufca colore, & magnitudine paulo minor, uerfari haec in faxis & tedlis folita efh, nec roftrum rutilum, ut merula habet. Merula^ etiam & colore, & uoce per tempora immutatur. Nam ex nigra redditur rufa, & uocem emittit diuerfam. Strepitat enim per hyemem, quum per aefhatem tumultuans cantet. Plinius f Merula, ex nigra ruffefcit, canit aefhate, [p. 94] hyeme balbutit, circa folfhitium muta, roftrum 1 A misprint for KOTTvcfyos. 2 Etst. An. Bk ix. 95. 3 Hist. An. Bk IX. 254; freely rendered. Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxix. Now the Green Picus makes itself a nest with its own bill in trees: for when a Picus hammering on a tree discovers by the sound that it is hollow at the core, the breeding season being close at hand, it bores that with its bill in which it afterwards intends to nest. There is not anywhere a tree so tall which this bird cannot reach by means of flight, for any weight of body that it has. Its plumage is moreover green above and, if my memory serves me, yellow underneath, or pale at least. Since then the Merops, hindered by its weight of body is incapable of rising to a height, and thus of making nests in trees, and has blue upper parts, the grunspecht of the Germans, which the Britons from the holes it makes call huhol [that is, Hew- hole], cannot be the Merops known to Aristotle and Pliny. Of the Merula. KoTTvcfyo^, merula, in English a blak osel, a blak byrd, in German eyn merl or eyn amisel. Aristotle. Of Merulae there are two sorts, one black and common, and the other white, of equal size indeed and having a like voice, but which is well-known round Cyllene in Arcadia, and not bred elsewhere. There is of this kind another also, which is like the black, but dull in colour and a little less in size. It usually haunts rocks and roofs, but has not the bill ruddy like the Merula. The Merula in colour and in voice moreover changes with the season, for it turns from black to rufous, and utters a different cry. For it chatters in winter, but sings lustily in summerk Pliny. From black the Merula turns rufous, in summer it sings, but in winter it babbles, and about the solstice ^ The readings in Aristotle differ considerably. ‘ Sings lustily ’ may go with On winter.’ 8—2 quoq$ anniculis in ebur transfiguratur, dutaxat maribus. DE MILVO SIVE mihiio. XKTivo<^, miluiLS, Anglice, a glede, a puttok, a kyte^ Germanice c^n Plinius \ Milui ex accipitru genere funt, magnitudine differentes. I idem uidentur artem gubernandi docuiffe, caude flexibus, in coelo monftrante natura, quod opus effet in profundo. Milui & ipfi hybernis menfibus latent, non tamen ante hirundines abeuntes. Traduntur & folftitijs affici podagra. Aristoteles ^ Milui pariunt bina magna ex parte, interdum & terna, totidem^? excludunt pullos. Sed 95] qui Aetolius nuncupatur, uel quaternos aliquando excludit. Dno milnorum ge?iera noni, maius & minus: maius colore propemodum rujfo eft, apud Anglos frequiens, & infig7iiter rapax. Pueris hoc genus cibum e manibus in tirbibus & oppidis eripere /olei. Altentm genus efl minus, nigrius, & urbes rarius frequentans. Hoc genus 7tt in Germania /cEpif/hne, ita in Anglia minqiiam me uidiffe recordor. DE MOLLICIPITE. M.aXaKoicpavkv^, molliceps, Anglice a slulke, a nyn murder, Germanice iiuin murbev. Aristoteles ^ Molliceps eodem in loco femper flbi fedem ftatuit, atque ibidem capitur. Gradi & cartila- 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. x. 2 Hist. A n. Bk Vi. 38. ^ Other readings are alycoXlos and eycoXio?. 4 Hist. An. Bk ix. 98. it is dumb. In yearlings furthermore the bill puts on a look of ivory, provided they are males. Of the Milvus or Milvius. tuTivo^, milvus, in English a glede, a puttok, a kyte, in German eyn weye. Pliny. Milvi are of the race of Accipitres, though differing in size. They seem, moreover, to have taught mankind the art of steering, by the turning of the tail, nature thus shewing in the sky what might be useful in the sea. Milvi lie hidden in the winter months, yet not until Hirundines depart. They are reported also to be affected with the gout about the solstice. Aristotle. Milvi lay for the most part two eggs each, but sometimes three, and hatch as many young. But that kind which is named zEtolian at times lays even four. I know two sorts of Kites, the greater and the less; the greater is in colour nearly rufous, and in England is abundant and remarkably rapacious. This kind is wont to snatch food out of children’s hands, in our cities and towns. The other kind is smaller, blacker, and more rarely haunts cities. This I do not remember to have seen in England, though in Germany most frequently. Of the Molliceps. MaXaicoicpavev^i, molliceps, in English a shrike, a nyn murder, in German eyn nuin murder. Aristotle. The Molliceps invariably takes its stand in the same place, and thereat it is caught. It has a big gineo capite eft, magnitudine paulo minor qua turdus, ore firmo, paruo, rotudo, colore totus cinereo depes\ & penis inualens eft, capitur maxime nodlua. MolLicipitevi effe arbitroj^ mnatlani, quain Germani nninmurder non fine eanfa nominant. Porro nt omni- [p. 96] hits perfpiennm fit, quee'nam & qualis illa fit, formam anis & mores quanto lieebit eompendio perfringam. Magnitudine, minimum turdorum genus eequat, e longinquo eonteplanti, tota apparet cinerea. Propius autem infpieienti, mentum, pePlus & uenter alba apparent, ab utroque oeulo ad eollum ufique, longa & nigra macida, fed nonnihil obliqua porrigitur. Capite tam grandi efi, ut aui triplo maiori {modo rofirum longius & maius effef) proportione fua fiatis refiponderet. Rofiro nigro efi, & mediocriter breui, & in fine adunco, fied omnium firmijfimo & fortilfimo efi, utpote quo manum fiemel meam duplici chirotheca munitam, fiauciauerit, & aui- um ofifia & capita confringat & conterat quam ocyfiime. Ala utraque nigra tota efi, nifi quod alba linea grandi- uficula, mediam utrinque alam tranfiuerfim difiingat. Caudam piece fimilem habet, Idgiuficulam nimirum, & uariam. Tibias & pedes pro ratione corporis omnium minimos, & eos nigros habet. Alas habet breues, & ueluti -per fialtus fiurfium atque deorfiuni uolitat. Viuit ex ficarabeis, papilionibus, & grandioribus infieclis: fed non fiolis ifiis, uerumetiam, more accipitris, anibus. Occidit enim regulos, fringillas, & {quod ego fiemel uidi) turdos. Tradunt etiam aucupes hanc picas quafidam [p- 97] fiylueflres interdum iugulare, & coimices in fugam adigere. Aues, quas occidit, 11011 unguibus, ut accipitres, uolando perniciter adfiequitur, fed ex infiidijs adoritur, & mox {quod iam ficepius expertus funi) iugulum petit, & cranium rofiro comprimit & confringit. Offa comminuta & coiitufa deuorat: & quando efurit, tantos carnis bolos in gidam ingerit, quantos riblus oris an- gufiia potefi capere. Prceter inorem etiam reliquarum moribu^j'^nec auium,, quando uberior prceda contigit, nonnihil in fu- ^ ciTTovs. Another reading is evnovs. Offifraga dici poffit, fi eius illi magnitudo adeffet. Nam nec and gristly head, and is a little smaller than a Thrush in size ; the bill is strong but small, and curved ; in colour it is wholly grey, while it is weak-footed and feeble on the wing, it is caught chiefly by the Noctua. The Molliceps I think to be that little bird which Germans call nuinmurder, not without a cause. Further that it may be quite clear to all which and what sort of bird it really is, I will touch on its form and habits as compendiously as may be. In size it equals the least of the Thrushes, and to one observing from afar seems wholly grey. And yet, to one inspecting it more nearly, the chin, the breast and belly appear white, and from each eye there reaches to the neck, although somewhat oblique, a long black patch. It has so big a head that (were the bill longer and larger) it assuredly would answer in proportion for a bird of thrice its size. The bill is black and moderately short, and hooked at the tip, but is the stoutest and strongest of all, so much so that the bird once wounded my hand, although protected by a double glove, and very speedily it crushes and breaks up the bones and skulls of birds. Each wing is wholly black, except that a white line of some size marks transversely the middle of the wing on either side. The tail is like that of a Pie, that is to say, longish and particoloured. Of all it has the shortest legs and feet proportionately to its body, and these parts are black. It has short wings, and flies as if by bounds upwards and downwards. It lives on beetles, butterflies, and biggish insects, and not only these, but also birds after the manner of a Hawk. For it kills Reguli and Finches and (as once I saw) Thrushes ; and bird-catchers even report that it from time to time slays certain woodland Pies, and can put Crows to flight. It does not seize the birds it kills with its claws, after a swift flight, as Hawks do, but attacks them stealthily and soon (as I have often had experience) aims at the throat and with its beak squeezes and breaks the skull. Then it devours the crushed and bruised bones, and when anhungered crams into its gullet lumps of flesh as big as the gape’s narrowness can take. Again, beyond the habit of the rest of birds, when prey happens to be more plentiful, it lays by some for future scarcity. colore ab ea multum abludit. turani penwnd reponit. Miifcas enini grandiores & infecla iam capta in aculeis & /pinis arbujiorum figit & fiufipendit: omnmni aiduni facilime cicuratur, & manfiucfadta, carnibus alitur, quce fit fuerint ficciores, a2Lt pi^orfius exangues, potum reqimdt. In Anglia fice- piiis qudni bis nunquam uidi, in Germania ficepijfime. Nomen huius apud nojiros neminem inueni, qtti nouerit, prcEter Dominicm Francificum Louellum, tain animi quam corporis dotibus equitem auratum nobilijjimum. lain fi cui mollicipitis Arijiotelis deficriptio huic non uideatur per omnia conuenire, tyrannorum albo ad- ficribat, aut auem oflendat, cui deficriptio melius competat. DE NOCTVA. V\av^, iiodlua, Aiiglice an outd, or an hoimlet, [p. 98] Germanice eV)n eul & ei)n u(e Saxonice. Aristoteles \ Noftuae, cicuniae^ & reliqua, quq interdiu nequeunt cernere, no6lu uenando cibum fibi adquirunt: uerum non tota nodle id faciunt, fed tempore uefpertino et matutino. Venantur autem mures, lacertas, uerticillos, & eiufmodi beftiolas. Nodtuam® caeterse omnes aues cir- cumuolant, quod mirari uocatur, aduolantesc^^ percutiunt ^ Qua propter aucupes ea confhituta, auicularum genera multa & uaria capiunt. DE OLORE. Kvfcv6<;, olor, Aiiglice a fiuuaii, Germanice et)n fu>ait. Aristoteles l Olor. Olores palmides® funt, apud lacus & paludes uiuentes, qui nec probitate uiftus, morum, pro- [p. 99] lis, fenedlutis uacant^ Aquilam fi pugnam 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 122. ^ Apparently a misprint for cicumae, said to mean ‘horned owls.’ Aristotle has wKTiKopaKes which he identifies in Bk viil. 84 with wTot. 2 Hist. An. Bk ix. ii. Aristotle has rtAXoua-t = pluck it. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 78. ® That is, palmipedes. ^ Aristotle has ev^loToi di kiu Air^deis koI €VT€kvol Ka\ evyrjpoi. For it impales and hangs the bigger flies and insects on the thorns and spines of shrubs, so soon as they are caught: of all birds it is tamed most easily, and when accustomed to the hand is fed on meat, and, should this happen to be somewhat dry or altogether bloodless, it requires drink. In England I have never seen it oftener than twice, although most frequently in Germany. Among our people I have found no one who knew its name, except Sir Francis Lovell, that most noble knight, endowed with equal gifts of mind and body. Now if Aristotle’s description of the Molliceps does not appear to any one in all points to agree with this let him ascribe it to the list of the Tyranni, or shew us a bird, which the description fits better than this. Of the Noctua. FXauf, noctua, in English an owl or an howlet, in German eyn eul, and in Saxon eyn ule. Aristotle. The Noctuae, Cicumae and the rest, which cannot see by day, obtain their food by seeking it at night: and yet they do not do this all night long, only at eventide and dawn. They hunt moreover mice, lizards, and scorpions, and small beasts of the like kind. All other birds flock round the Noctua, or, as men say ‘‘admire,” and flying at it buffet it. Wherefore this being its nature\ fowlers catch with it many and different kinds of little birds. Of the Olor. Kf/rz^o9, olor, in English a swan, in German eyn swan. Aristotle. Olores are web-footed, and they live on lakes and marshes; they get food with ease, are peaceable, prolific and attain to a great age. They repulse the ^ Or, possibly, ‘ the bird being set down on the ground.’ coeperit, repugnantes uincunt. Ipfi tamen nunquam, nifi prouocati, pugnam inferunt. Canere foliti funt, & iamiam morituri. Volant etiam in pelagus longius, & iam quidam cum in mari Africo nauigarunt, multos canentes uoce flebili & mori nonnullos confpexere. Si quis olorem imnqiLani iiiderii, & ex hac Arijlo- telis defcriptioiie non fatis qnalis fit anis didicerit, fciat anent effe albam, anfere ninlto maioreni, forma tamen & nicln fimilem, pedibns nigris^ & rofiro parum turbinato, colore rutilo, in cuius fumma parte, qua capiti committitur, nigerrimum tubercidum, atque id rotundum, & in roflrum fefe infle ciens, exi fit. DE ONOCRATALO. Onocrotalus. Sunt hodie non partim multi eruditione inter omnes confpicui, qui grandifonam illam lacufrem auem, Anglis buttorain & Germanis pittourum, & r of dominam uocatam. Onocrotalum effe contendant. Quorii [p. 100] fententice lubens fubfcriberem, {pidchre enim cum uoce anis nominis etymologia conuenitl) nif Plinij antoritas de onocrotalo ad hunc modum fcribentis, non diffuaderet. Onocrotali, inquit, olorum fimilitu- dinem habent, nec diftare uidentur omnino, nifl faucibus ipfls ineffet, alterius uteri genus, huc omnia inexplebile animal congerit, mira ut fit capacitas, mox perfedta rapina, fenfim inde in os reddita, in ueram aluum ruminantis modo refert. Gallia hos feptentrionalis, proxime^ oceano mittit. Hcec PliniiE"-. 1 This should apparently be ‘ proxima,’ as some texts have it. 2 Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xlvii. Aquila successfully, should he begin a fight; and yet, unless provoked, never induce the fight. These birds are wont to sing even when just about to die. They also fly afar over the main, and men ere now, who have been sailing on the African sea have met with many singing mournfully and seen some of them die. Should any one have never seen a Swan, nor learnt sufficiently what sort of bird it be from this account of Aristotle, let him know that it is a white bird, much bigger than a Goose, though like in form and feeding; with black feet, and a bill hardly spindle-shapedf reddish in colour; on the highest part of which, where it adjoins the head, stands forth a very black and rounded knob, sloping towards the bill. Of the Onocrotalus. There are many to-day conspicuous among all for learning to no small degree who maintain that the loud-sounding lacustrine bird, called Buttor by the English, and Pittour or Rosdomm by the Germans, is the Onocrotalus. To whose opinion I would willingly subscribe, (the more so as the etymology of the bird’s name agrees well with its voice,) did not the authority of Pliny writing of the Onocrotalus after this manner dissuade me therefrom. The Onocrotali, he says, have a similitude to the Olores, and they do not seem to differ in any way, save that there is a kind of second belly in the very jaws, fierein the insatiable animal crams everything at once, so marvellous is its capacity, and presently, the plundering complete, it gradually returns all to the mouth, and thence transfers it to the real belly in the manner of a ruminant. Northern Gaul, where nearest to the ocean, sends us these. So far Pliny. 1 This passage is not easily rendered, as it is difficult to see what Turner intended by ‘turbinato.’ Turbo is a conical shell, spindle and so forth ; but it is hard to say how a Swan’s beak could be considered either conical or spindle-shaped. Nunc paucis aimn illam 7iobis depingam^ qua onocrotalum effe affeuerant. Auis eji tota corporis figura Ardecefimilis. longis cruribtis, fed ardece breui- oribus. longo collo^ & mire phirnofo^ & rofro 7iec breui nec obtufo. capvU pennce tegunt nigerrimce. reliqmtm nero corpus, fufcce & pallidce mactdis iiigris denfijfme refperfce. Pedes habet longiffmos, nam inter extrejnos ungites 7nedij digiti pedis iinius & ealcis eiufdem, [p. \o\\fpithames longitudo intercedit. Vngues habet longiff- mos, nam ille, qui caleis uieeni in auibus gerit, longitudine fefqitiuneiam fuperat. quare ad frieandos dentes nof rates tituntur, & argento inferunt. Medius digitus utidufqzLe pedis, qui cceteris longior ef, unguem habet portentofimi, nempe dentatitm & feimatum, non /ecus atque pePtuncidorum tefce ferratce funt, ad lubricas angidllas, quas coepiA, retinendas, a natura proetddubio ordinatum. Cattda illi bimiiffma ef, et fo^naehus eapaeifimiLs, quo ingluuiei loco utitur. Ventriculum non cceterarum auium uentricidis, fed eanino f^nileift habet, & eum grandem & capacem. Sed ne cui falfa effe uideanticr, quce de hac aue iam fcripfi, aut ex alio^mm relatti potius quam eerta experientia didiciffe uidear: dum prima hums libri folia adhue fib prcElo effent, auem mihi hanc contemplanti, fecantiq\, & nii tales haberet imitricidimi & fomachum, quales Plinius illi Unbuit, inuefiganti: aderant uir eruditiffmus, & abfnfiommi natiLrce arcanomim fludio- ffimus inuefigator loaiines Echthms, Medicits apud Colonienfes celeberrimus: Cornelms Sittardus, Medi- cincE prima laurea decoratus. M. LiiberUis Efius, artium liberalium profeffor, ambo fimpliciiLm mediea- ipientorum ptilchre gnari, & ad miracidum ufque fudi- [p. \od\of'. & Coitradus Embeeanus uir non utdgariter doPtus, et Gyimiicance officince eafigator infigniter diligens, cum alijs aliquot bonarum artium fudiofs, qui me nihil de hac aue hie fcripfffe tefari poffunt & uolunt, quod e7tm illis omnibus non tiiderim. Ad ripas la- eimm & pabidium defdet, ubi rofrum in aquas in- 1 A misprint for ‘ cepit.’ Now in a few words I will portray to you that bird which they assert to be the Onocrotalus. In general make of body it is like the Heron, with long legs, though shorter than that bird’s. The neck is long and marvellously thick with plumes, the beak is neither short nor blunt. Very black feathers clothe the head, but on the body generally they are dusky and pale, and most thickly sprinkled with black spots. It has very long feet, indeed there is a span’s length from the claw-tips of the middle toe of either foot to the heel of the same. It has very long claws, for that which serves in birds the purpose of a heel exceeds an inch and a half in length, on which account our countrymen use it to pick their teeth, and mount it in silver. The middle toe of either foot, which is longer than the rest, has a prodigious claw, that is to say, toothed and serrated, not unlike the shells of little scallops are, doubtless contrived by nature to retain the slippery eels, which the bird catches. The tail is very short, the gullet most capacious, and it uses it in the place of a crop. It has a belly not like that of other birds, but like that of a dog; it also is large and capacious. But lest what I have written thus far of this bird seem false to anyone, or lest I seem to have learnt the above from the reports of others rather than from sure experience: while the first pages of this book were still at press, and while I was examining the bird and was dissecting it, and taking note whether it really had a belly and a stomach such as Pliny had assigned to it, there were assisting me Joannes Echthius, a very learned man and a most zealous student of the more abstruse secrets of nature, a physician much renowned among the men of Cullen: Cornelius Sittardus decorated with the highest laurel-wreath of Medicine : Marcus Lubertus Estius, professor of the liberal arts, both excellently skilled in that of simpling, and wonderfully earnest, and as well as these Conradus Embecanus, a man well-informed in no common degree, and a remarkably careful corrector in the printing-house of Gymnicus, with certain others versed in learned arts, who can and will bear witness to the fact that I have written nothing here about this bird which I have not observed in company with all of them. It sits about the sides of lakes and marshes, where putting fej^ens, tantos edit bombos, ut ad miliarium Italicttm facile poffit aiidiri. Pifces & prcefertim anguillas tLorat atiidi/fime, nec tdla aids eft, excepto mergo, qucE ifla uoracior efi. Nunc qidd fimile habet ifta cygno ? Nihil plane, quod fe oculis confpiciendum offerat. Et Moifes I^eidt. undecimo capite, pi^oxime cygnum inter immundas anes onocrotalum recenfet. Vnde non immerito fufpicio quibufdam orta eft in Gallia, aut ludcea auem forma olori fimilem alicubi poffe repeidri. Quod fi nufquam talis inueniatur: probabile efl, aut Plin. a mendacibus relatoribus fids effe falfum, aut ea, quce de fimilitudine inter onocrotalum & cygnu tradidit, non de corporis fed uocis fimilitudine intellexijfe. Nam & olores interdum bombos emittunt ruditui afinino non diffimiles: fed breues, & qtice longe audiri non poffunt. Verum fi hanc meam interpretatione uaricE, reconditcef, eruditionis uiri, fuis fuffragijs minime approbauerint, \y.\of\hanc faltem Arifiotelis ardeam fiellarem effe mecum Onocrota- confentient. Nam prcEter ccetera, quce fuperiits attigi, Arifioteles in fabula fuiffe often dens, ardeam fiellarem ex feriio auem fuiffe faPtam, opinioni mecE multum patrocinatur. Vt fugitiuorum enim feruorii pofifugam deprcehcforum, cutis, loris, flagris, uirgis, & fcorpionibus icta, uerberum uibicibus, tota maculofa redditur: ita huius aids plumcB nigris ubique maculis, fed potijfimum in tergo, difiinPtce & ueluti picluratcB, fend flagris ccefl cutem proxime referiit. Quam rem fabulce occa- fionem dediffe ex hoc colligo, quod fabularum uariarum autor Ariflophanes^, de attagene aue, quod ad plumarum colores attinet, huic flmilima, ad hunc modum fer ibat: Si qtds ex uobis erit fugitiuus atq; ufiis notis. Attagen is fane apud nos narius appellabitur. Ium quibuf- dam hodie didlu, ardeam, effe fiellarem apud Ari- dotelem. De ortygometra ex Aristotele l Ortygometra, id eft, cot.urnicu matrix, auis eft forma perinde ac lacuftres. Cruribus ideo 1 See p. 36. ^ Hist. An. Bk viii. 83, freely rendered, and interpolated. its beak into the water it gives utterance to such a booming as may easily be heard an Italian mile away. It gorges fishes and especially eels most greedily, nor is there any bird, except the Mergus, that devours more. Now what resemblance has it to a Swan ? Distinctly none that brings itself in view before our eyes. Now in the eleventh chapter of Leviticus Moses enumerates the Onocrotalus next to the Swan among the unclean birds. And a suspicion has arisen thence, not undeservedly, within a certain class, that somewhere within Gaul or Judaea a bird of Swan-like form may possibly exist. If such, however, nowhere can be found, it seems likely that Pliny either was deceived by lying storytellers or he understood that which he has related of the similarity between the Onocrotalus and Cygnus to refer to a resemblance not of body, but of voice. For even Swans utter at certain times booms not unlike the braying of an ass: but short, and which cannot be heard afar. However if men of deep and varied learning by their votes shall not approve this rendering of mine, at least they will agree with me that the said bird is x4ristotle’s Ardea Stellaris. For to omit the rest, which I have touched upon above, that author certainly gives countenance to my opinion when he shews a tale to have existed that the Ardea Stellaris from a slave was turned into a bird. For as the skin of an absconding slave, caught subsequent to flight, stricken with thongs, whips, rods and knotted ropes, becomes all mottled with the wales of stripes, so too the feathers of this bird are marked, and painted as it were, with mottlings of black in every part, though chiefly on the back, and thus may well recall to us the skin of slaves cut up with whips. And that this thing gave rise to the aforesaid tale, I gather from the fact that Aristophanes, author of various plays, writes of the Attagen, a bird very like ours so far as colour of the feathers goes, to this effect:— “ If any of you be a runaway, and branded with the marks, with us assuredly he shall be called the spotted Attagen.” Of the Ortygometra from Aristotle. The Ortygometra, that is, dam of the Coturnices, in form is much like marsh-birds. Certain birds are longis aues quaedam innituntur, quod earum uita fit paluftris. [p. 104] Ortygometram aliqiii eandem effe aueni cum crece et cychramo 2iohint. Sed Aviftoteles, pecuhare caput creci donauit, et odla2w libro hiJiori(E animalium, cychra- imtm a matrice, qua7n ortygometram ^tocat, his uerbis dijlinguit. Coturnices {inquit) cum haec adeunt loca, fine ducibus pergunt: at cum hinc abeunt, ducibus lingulaca, oto, & matrice, proficifcuntur, atque etiam cychramo, a quo etiam reuocatur nodu, cuius uoce cum fenferint aucupes, in- telligunt parari difceffum. Hcbc ille. Fieri igitur non poteji, ut matrix df cychramus eadem anis fit. Aliqui ortygometram efifie nolunt Germanorum ficricam, df Anglorum daker Hennam, quorum ego fiententicE accederem, fii crecem eandem cum ifita, euincerent. DE OSSIFRAGA. Aristoteles f Offifrage magnitudo maior eft quam aquilae, color ex cinere' albicans. Probe' & foetificat, & [p. 105] uiuit, coenae gerula & benigna eft. Nutricat enim bene, & fuos pullos & aquilae. Cum enim illa fuos nido eiecerit, h^c recipit eos, ac educat. Plinius f Quidam adijeiunt genus aquil^, quam barbatam uocat Thufei offifragam. 1 Hist. An. Bk VIII. 39. 2 Apparently a misprint for ‘ cinereo.’ 3 Hist. An. Bk IX. 123. ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. iii. perched upon long legs because their life is passed in marshes. Some will have Ortygometra to be the same as Crex and Cychramus. But Aristotle has attributed a peculiar sort of head to Crex, and in the eighth book of his History of Animals distinguishes his Cychramus from Matrix, which he calls Ortygometra, in the following words :— Coturnices (he says) when they come to these places travel without guides : but when they go away set out with the Lingulaca, the Otus, and the Matrix as their guides, and also with the Cychramus, by which they are moreover summoned back at night. And when the fowlers have heard its cry, they know the birds’ departure is at hand. Thus he writes. Therefore it is impossible that the Matrix and the Cychramus should be the same, Others will have the Ortygometra to be the Scrica of the Germans and the Baker Hen ot the English, and I should accede to their opinion, if they could but prove the Crex to be the same as this. Of the Ossifraga. Aristotle In size the Ossifrage is greater than the Aquila, its colour whitish greyk Both in breeding it is comely and in way of life, it brings food home and is kindly. For it rears its own young with care, besides those of the Aquila. For when the latter has cast its progeny out of the nest, the former takes them to itself, and brings them up. Pliny. Some there are who add that kind of Aquila, which the Tuscans call a bearded Ossifrageh 1 See p. 36. 2 Possibly Pliny means the Lammergeier {GypaHus barbatus). T. 9 DE OTO. ftjTo?, Otus, Anglice a Jwrn out, Germanice el)n ranfeul / ober ei)u fct;(eter eu(. Aristoteles \ Otus noftuse fimilis eft, pinnulis circiter aures eminentibus, praeditus, unde nomen accepit, quafi auritum dixeris. Nonnulli ululam eu appellant, alij afionem l Blatero hic eft & hallucinator, & planipes : faltantes enim imitatur. Capitur intentus in altero aucupes ^ altero circumeunto. [p. 106] De otide ex Plinio f Tetraonibus proximae funt, quas Hifpania aues tardas appellat, Gr^cia otidas, damnatas in cibis. Emiffa enim offibus medulla, odoris taedium extemplo fequitur. DE PARIS. (u^lOoXo^, parus, Anglice a tit nioufc, German. Aristoteles Parorum tria funt genera : fringillago, quae maior eft, quippe quae fringillam aequet. Alter monticola cognomine eft: quoniam in montibus degat, cui cauda longior. Tertius magnitudine fui exigui corporis difcrepat, quanquam caetera fimilis eft. parus'’ plura oua parit. Fringillago. Prirmim pani, A ngli uocant the great titmoics or the great oxei. Germani fb{inO)[c. Parus me- Parum fecundum, Angli the lefs titmo2is 7iominant. Germanici 0)U inec(mO)fe. 1 Hist. An. Bk viii. 84. very freely rendered. 2 Aristotle has ‘ wicriKopoKa,’ instead of ‘ ululam ’ and ‘ asionem.’ 3 A misprint for ‘ aucupe.’ ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xxii. 5 Hist. An. Bk VIII. 40. c Hist. An. Bk IX. 88. 131 Of the Otus. WT09, otus, in Knglish a horn owl, in German eyn ranseul or eyn schleier euL Aristotle. The Otus is like a Noctua, furnished with little tufts sticking- out near the ears, whence it has got its name, as though one should say “eared.” Some call it Ulula, and others Asio. It is a babbler and a mischievous rogue, and is a mimic too, for when men dance it imitates their ways. It is caught while intent upon one of two bird-catchers, the other circumventing it. Of the Otis from Pliny. Next to the Tetraones come those birds, which Spain calls “Aves tard^e ” and Greece “Otides,” condemned as food for man. For when the marrow issues from the bones, disgust at the smell follows there and then. Of the Pari. ciL'yiOa\oi;, parus, in Knglish a titmouse, in German eyn meyse. Aristotle. There are three kinds of Pari : Fringillago bigger than the rest, for it is equal to a Fringilla. The next Monticola by name, for it inhabits mountains, has a longer tail. The third kind differs in the size of its small body, though not otherwise unlike the rest. Parus lays many eggs. The first Parus the English call the Great Titmouse or Great Oxeye, the Germans eyn kolmeyse. The second Parus the English name the Less Titmouse, the Germans eyn meelmeyse. 9—2 Pari—Pardalus—Passeres [p. 107] Parus minimus. Parum tertium, An^/i nomiam a fimilitudine quam cum uelata monacha habet, nominant. Nididanttir pari in cauis arboribus, iLcfcuntur non folimi uermibus, fed & canabino femine, & nucibus, quas roftris fuis acutiorib7is folent perforare, & nucleos eruere. Sceuo duo priora genera midthm deledlanttir. Parus maximus ineimte flatim uere cantiunctdam quandam breuem, nec admodum iucundam exercet, alias mutus, hide pePtiLS hUeum efl, intercinfante linea 7dgra maiuf- cula. Cceterorum corpora albo, 7tigro, pallido, & cyaneo coloribus dijlinguuntur. DE PARDALO. Pardalus, Angi, {ut creditur') a pluuer, Germa. in)n puluer. Aristoteles ^ Pardalus etiam auicula quaedam perhibetur, quae magna ex parte gregatim uolat, nec fingu- lare hanc uideris, colore tota cinereo efl:, magnitudine proxima mollicipitieft : fed pennis & pedibus bonis, uocem frequentem nec grauem emittit. Si aids illa pardalus fit. quam effe fufpicor, celerrime currit, & fibilum, quem pafores & aurigarum pueri labijs porrePtis edunt, uoce imitatur. Pennas habet ad cinereum colorem proxime uergcntes, quarum fingulce fingulis flauis maculis funt refperfce, & ea auicula, quam mollicipite effe conijcio, multo maior eft. Fieri potejl, ut eius aids plures fint fpecies. DE PASSERIBVS. GTpovQo^, paffer, Aiigli. a fparrouu, German, cpn mufct;e obev epu [pat3. Quidam epn luiiingf, Saxones cpn fperlingf uocant. Paffer, authore Ariftotele% puluerat & laiiat, et aids eji omnium falaciffima. Et quanquam Arijioteles unum tantum pajferum genus fecerit, tria tame genera effe conflat, quce nunquam nouit, & quce recentioi'es 1 Hist. An. Bk IX. 99. ^ Aristotle has ineivoLs, referring to the )(\(t)pL(x)v and the paXaKOKpavds. 3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 260, Bk V. 8. The third Parus the English name the Nun from the resemblance that it bears to a veiled sister. The Pari nest in hollow trees, they feed not only on worms, but on hempseed and nuts, which they are wont to bore with their sharp-pointed beaks, and thence extract the kernels. The two former kinds are very fond of suet. The Greatest Parus, when the spring arrives, at once utters a sort of little song, short and not very pleasing, it is dumb at other times ; its breast is yellow with a somewhat big black line running along the middle. Of the other kinds the bodies are diversified by white, black, grey, and blue. Of the Pardalus. Pardalus, in English (as is believed) a pluver, in German eyn pulver. Aristotle. The Pardalus again is held to be a certain little bird, which for the most part flies about in flocks, and cannot be seen solitary; it is wholly grey in colour, and in size comes nearest to the Molliceps : but it has strong wings and feet, and utters a frequent but not deep-toned cry. If that bird be the Pardalus which I suspect, it runs very swiftly, and by its cry mimics the whistle which shepherds and post-boys make with pouting lips. It has the feathers almost ash-colour, each sprinkled with one yellow spot, and is much bigger than the little bird which I suppose to be the Molliceps. It well may be that there are several kinds of this bird. Of the Passeres. o-rpovOo^, passer, in English a sparrow, in German eyn musche or eyn spatz. Some call it eyn luningk, the Saxons eyn sperlingk. The Passer, Aristotle says, both dusts itself and washes, and is of all birds most wanton. And though Aristotle has made only one kind of Passeres, yet it is clear that there are three kinds, which he never knew; but which the later ^34 Paffer tor- c|iiatus. Paffer magnus. Huic mol- licipitis apud [p. 109] Arillotelem defcriptio magna ex parte con- uenit. Paffer tro- glodites. Grceci inuenerimt. Priimivi horum t7duni eji paffer torquatus^ a commimi paffere^ 110 foPi t07'que albo, fed df 7Loce, & modo nidificandi differes. Hoc genus in Germania frequens eji, fed apud Anglos rarum. Secundus paffer magnus Aucliiario dicitur, & in fummis arborum ramis plerumque folet federe. hunc uarifs de caufis Anglorum buntingam, & Germanoinim Geifi- hammeram e[fe fufpicor. Tertius paffer Arijioteli incognitus, efl paffer troglodites, apud Paulum Aegi- netam, & Aetium celeberrimos medicos, midtitm celebratus. Qualis autem illa aids fit, ex Paulo & Aetio, quorum deferiptiones mox fubifeiam, omnibus facile patebit. Paulus A.egineta de passere TROGLODITE. His accedit laudatiffimum remedium troglodites. efh autem pafferculus omnium auium minima, ea fola excepta, qu^ regulus appellatur, hoc enim folo paulo maior eft, eicj? fimilis : colore inter cineriu & uiride, tenui roftro, in muris maxime & in fepibus degens. Aetius. Troglodites eft pafferculus minimus, iuxta fepes & muros uidlum quaeritans. Eftqj hoc animalculum omnium anicularum minimum, ex- [p. iio]cepta ea, qu^ regulus appellatur, fimilis autem regulo in multis, praeterquam quod in fronte auricolores pennas non habet. Eft aute troglodites paffer regulo paulo maior & nigrior, caudam4? femper fubreftam, & albo colore retro interpunftam habet. Magis item garrulus Greeks discovered. First of these three is Passer torquatus, differing from the common Passer not alone in its white collar, but also its note and mode of nesting. This kind is plentiful in Germany, but rare among the English. The second Passer is called in the Supplement^ the Great, and for the most part it is wont to sic on the top boughs of trees. P'or several reasons I consider this to be the Buntine of the English and the Gersthammer of Germans. The third Passer, unknown to Aristotle, is the Passer troglodytes, fully recognised by Paulus Aigineta and Aetius, doctors of great renown. And so what sort of bird it is will easily be seen by everyone from Paulus and Aetius, and their descriptions I will forthwith add. Paulus ^gineta" of the Passer troglodytes. There is a remedy most highly prized besides these, namely Troglodytes : this is nothing but a little Sparrow, the least of all birds, with the exception only of that kind which is called Regulus. It is a iittle bigger than that bird alone, and similar to it: in colour between grey and green, and with a slender bill. It li ves chiefly in walls and hedges. Aetius I The Troglodytes is the very least of Sparrows, seeking for its food near hedges and near walls. This little animal moreover is the smallest of all little birds, except that which is called Regulus, while it is like the Regulus in many ways, save that it has not golden-coloured feathers on the forehead. The Passer troglodytes is a little larger and blacker than the Regulus ; it always has its tail cocked up, which is spotted behind with white. Likewise it is more noisy than the ^ It seems impossible to ascertain what this Auctiiarium was. 2 A medical writer of .Tigina, whose chief work was De Re Medica Libri Septem. ^ A Greek medical writer of Amida in Mesopotamia who wrote Bt/yA/a ’larpiKct 'E/c/catSeKa. quam regulus eft, & fane iuxta fummum alae lineamentum cinerij amplius coloris. Breues item facit uolatus, naturalem autem uim omnino admiratione dignam habet. NiJiil ejl in hac defcriptione, quod non ad aniitjjini aiLiculcB conueniat, qiLani A ngli paffereni fepiarium^ Colonienfes ancitpes koebnnffhnni noniinant. Sed quo- iiiani tam tn Germania quam in Anglia uarijs nomi- nibiLs appellahir, & non omnes eum ex iluo nomine agnofeunt, omma eius, qucE noui nomina, ut omnibus innotefcat, fubijciam. Vocatur apud Anglos an hedge fpaimouu, hoc eft paper fepiarius, & a dike fmoider, hoe eji, in fepibus [p. Ill] delitefcens. Vulgus Coloniefe hunc pafferem eyn grafs- mufch appellat, ueru peritiores quiq\ aucupes eyn koel- mufch, hoc eJl, pafferem in foraminibus & eauemis degentem, nuncupant. Hic Germanos monitos nolo, quu duce fiiit aues, grafmufchi, fua lingua uocatce, illa fold effe trogloditen, quce per totum annum regulo fimilis cernitur, & non illam, quce circa fauces plumofa^ ineunte flatim hyeme difeedit. Nidum huius pafferis femel humi facium inter urtieas uidi, & pullos antequam uolare poffunt, relicto nido, inter herbas fruticesp reptitantes, fcepiiis obferuaui: uermibus pafeitur, & paulo ante uefperum folet impenfius Jlrepere, & omnium fere auium pofirema domnitum petit. DE PA VONE. Tacbv, pauo, Anglice a pecok, Germanice pjfau'. Saxonice et)n ]3agelun. Plinius l Pauo gemmantes laudatus expandit colores, aduerfo maxime fole, quia fic fulgentius radiant, fimul umbrae quofdam repercuffus caeteris, quae [p-ii2]in opaco clarius micat, conchata quaerit cauda, omnesc^j in aceruum contrahit penarum, quos ^ This is probably a misprint for some other word. Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. xx. Regulus, and certainly towards the upper border of the wing the colour is more nearly grey. And though it takes short flights, its natural energy is worthy of all admiration. In this description there is nothing that does not agree exactly with the little bird, which Englishmen name Passer sepiarius, the bird-catchers of Cullen the koelmusch. But inasmuch as both in Germany and England it is called by various names, and all men do not recognise it by the same, I will subjoin those of its appellations which I know, that so it may be known to all. By the English it is called a Hedge-Sparrow, which is the same as Passer sepiarius, and also a Dike Smouler, one, that is, hiding itself in hedges. The common people of Cullen call it eyn grassmusch, but those who know better and fowlers name it eyn koelmusch, that is, a Sparrow dwelling within holes and caverns. Now here I wish the Germans to be warned, that since there are two birds called grasmusch in their tongue, the Troglodytes is that kind alone which throughout the year is noticed to be like the Regulus and not that which is feathered round the jaws, and goes away so soon as winter comes. Of this Passer I once met with a nest built on the ground among nettles and I have often seen young having left the nest before that they could fly, creeping among the grass and shrubs. It feeds on worms, and it is wont a little before evening to cry out with not a little vehemence; it goes to roost almost the last of all the birds. Of the Pavo. Tacov, pavo, in English a pecok, in German eyn pflaw, in Saxon eyn pageliin. Pliny. The Peacock is admired for setting forth his jewelled colours, generally counter to the sun, since thus they shine the brighter, while with concave tail he gains certain reflexions of the shade for other feathers which shine brighter in the dark, and at the same fpeftare^ gaudet oculos. Idem cauda annuis uicibus amiffa cum folijs arborum, donec renaf- catur iterum cum flore: pudibundus ac moerens quaerit latebram. Viuit annis uiginti quinque. Colores incipit fundere in trimatu. Ab autori- bus traditur non tantum gloriofum animal, fed maleuolum, ficut anfer uerecundum. Pauones in capitibus fuis ueluti crinita habent arbufcula. DE PERDICE. UepBi^, peiEix, Anglice a pertrige, Germanice ei)U velt t)bn/ abev e^n rap[)on. Aristoteles l Perdix auis efl pulueratrix, & non altiuola, & eadem non in nido fed in condenfo frutice [p. 113] aut fegete prolem fuam munit. Aues enim gra- Liiores nidos fibi non faciunt, ut coturnices & perdices, & reliquae generis eiufdem. Quibus enim uolandi facultas deeft, ijs nidus non prodeft : fed fadta in aprico^ area, (alibi enim nufquam pariunt) atque materia ut uepribus ^ quibufdam congeftis, quoad accipitrum & aquilarum iniu- riam deuitare poffmt. Oua edunt, & incubant, mox cum excluferint, protinus pullos educunt, propterea quod nequeunt fuo uolatu ijs cibum adminiftrare. Refouent pullos fuos fub fe, ipfae ducendo more gallinarum, & coturnices & perdices. Nec eodem loco pariut & incubat, ne quis locum percipiat, longioris temporis mora. 1 A misprint for ‘ spectari.’ Eist. All. Bk IX. 260, 59—61. There is a reading Xeiw besides ^ Aristotle has aKavOdv nva kul vXrjv, so no doubt ‘ut’ is a misprint for ‘ et.’ Gaza has ‘ ut.’ time draws into a cluster all the eyes upon his feathers, which he is well pleased should be admired. The same bird, having lost his tail, when the trees shed their leaves by annual change, ashamed and sorrowing seeks a hiding place, until it once more grows together with the dowers. He lives for dve and twenty years, and in the third begins to shew his colours. He is reported by authorities to be an animal not only proud but also ill-disposed, just as the Goose is bashful Peacocks have on their heads as it were a bush of hair. Of the Perdix. liephi^, perdix, in English a pertrige, in German eyn velt hon, or eyn raphon. Aristotle. The Perdix is a bird that dusts itself, and dies not high^ ; moreover it dnds safety for its young not in a nest, but in thick shrubs and corn. For birds ol heavy body make no nest, such as Coturnices and Perdices, and others of like sort. PTr to those kinds in which facility of dight is wanting, there is small advantage in a nest ; but in some sunny place (for they breed nowhere else) a space is cleared and sticks and a few briars are collected there sufdcient for them to avoid attacks of Accipitres and Aquilai. They lay their eggs and sit ; so soon as these are hatched, they lead their young away forthwith because they cannot supply food to them by means of dight. Both Coturnices and Perdices cherish their chicks beneath them, themselves leading them in the same way as hens lead theirs. They do not lay and incubate in the same place (year after year), lest any one should dnd it through the length of time for which they sit. Should 1 See p. 35. Perdix—Phasianus—Phoenix Cum ad nidum quis uenando accefferit, pro- [p. ii4]uoluit fe perdix ante pedes uenantis, quafi iam capi poffit\ atque ita ad fe capiendam hominem allicit, eoufque dum pulli effugiant, tum ipfa uolat, & reuocat prolem, parit oua non pauciora quam decem. EJi & alia auis, quce peiaiix riijlica dicittir, Anglis rala didta^ atius his uerjibiis Martialis‘^ meminit: RiiJlica fimi perdix, quid refert fi fapor idem ? Charior ejlperdix, fi fapit illa mirius, DE PHASIANO. Phafiianus, Anglice a phefan, Germanice et)n fafant/ ober ei)n fafian. Plinius l Phafiani geminas aures ex pluma fubmit- tunt, fubriguntcj?. quae ueluti cornicula apparent. Aristoteles ^ Phafianorum oua punftis diftinbfa funt ut meleagridum, puluerant ut gallinae & perdices, [p. 1^5] Phafiani a pediculis infeftantur, & nifi interdum puluerent, eifdem interimuntur. DE PHCENICE. Plinius Aethiopes atque Indi difcolores maxime & inenarrabiles ferunt aues, & ante omnes nobilem Arabie phoenicem : haud fcio an fabulofe, unum in toto orbe, nec uifum magnopere. Aquilae narratur magnitudine, auri fulgore circa colla, caetera purpureus, coeruleam rofeis caudam pen- 1 Aristotle has o)? eTriXrjTTTos ovaa, which means ‘as if disabled.’ 2 Epigr. Lib. xili. Ixxvi. 3 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlviii. 4 Hist. An. Bk vi. 5, Bk ix. 260, Bk v. 140. ° Hist. Nat. Lib. x. cap. ii. any man when hunting come up to the nest, the Perdix casts herself before the hunter’s feet, as if she could be caught at once, and thus attracts the man to take her, till the chicks escape, whereon she flies off and recalls her brood. She lays no fewer than ten eggs. And there is yet another bird, which is called Perdix rustica: it is called rale ” by Englishmen, and of it Martial makes mention in the following lines:— I am a country partridge, but what matters it so that the flavour be the same ? The partridge is the dearer, if it tastes less welP. Of the Phasianus. Phasianus, in English a phesan, in German eyn fasant or eyn fasian. Pliny. The Phasiani lower and erect two ears of feathers, which look like small horns. Aristotle. Of Phasiani the eggs are marked with spots, like those of Meleagrides; they dust themselves, just as Gallinai and Perdices do. Phasiani are a prey to lice, and if they do not sometimes dust themselves, are killed by them. Of the Phcenix. Pliny. The /Ethiopians and Indians tell of birds of very varied colouring and indescribable, and of the Phoenix of Arabia, most noteworthy of all: I know not whether falsely, that there is but one in the whole world, and this not often seen. It is declared to be of the size of an Aquila, with golden sheen around the neck, but purple otherwise, varied with roseate feathers on 1 The text here given is probably corrupt, which makes the rendering uncertain. nis diftinguentibus, criftis faciem caputcj^ plumeo apice honeftante. Primus atque diligen- tiffimus togatorum de eo prodidit Manilius, fenator ille maximus, nobilis, dodlore nullo, autor eft, neminem extitiffe, qui uiderit uefce- [p. ii6]tem. Sacrum in Arabia foli effe, uiuere annis 660. fenefcetem cafia thuriscjj furculis con- ftruere nidum, replere odoribus, & fuperemori. Ex offibus deinde ac medullis nafci primo ceu uermiculum, inde fieri pullum. DE PICA. KiTTa, pica, Anglice a py, or a piot, Germanice elfter/ ober e^n a^d. Aristoteles Pica uoces plurimas commutat, fingulis enim fere diebus diuerfam emittit uocem. Parit oua circiter nouem numero. Nidum in arboribus facit ex pilis & lana, glandes cum deficiunt, colligit, & in repofitorio abditas, referuat. Plinius l Minor nobilitas, quia non ex longinquo [p-117] uenit, fed expreffior loquacitas certo generi picarum eft, quam pfitacis eft. Nec difcunt tantum, fed diligunt meditantes43 intra femet, cura atq? cogitatione, intentionem non occultant. Conftat emori uiftas difficultate uerbi, ac nifi fubinde eadem audiant, memoria falli, quaerentes mirum in modum hilarari, fi interim audierint id uerbum. Nec uulgaris ijs forma, quamuis non 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 81. 2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlii. a tail of blue, tufts beautifying the face, a feathery crown the head. First of our citizens and with great care Manilius wrote of it, that noted senator, of such high birth ; of his own knowledge he asserts that nobody exists who ever saw it eat. He says that in Arabia it is considered sacred to the sun, and lives for six hundred and sixty years. When it grows old it makes itself a nest with cassia and twigs of frankincense, this nest it stores with scents and on the top it dies. Then from its bones and marrow is produced what seems a little worm, but afterwards becomes a chick. Of the Pica. KAra, pica, in English a py or a piot, in German eyn elster or eyn atzel. Aristotle. The Pica oftentimes changes its notes, for almost every day it utters different cries. It lays about nine eggs. It makes a nest in trees, of hair and wool, and when acorns grow scarce, it gathers them and keeps them hidden in store. Pliny. Less fame, because it does not come from distant lands, though more distinct loquacity characterizes a certain sort of Picae than the Psittaci. Not only do they learn, but they delight to talk, and meditating carefully and thoughtfully within themselves hide not their earnestness. They are known to have died when overcome by difficulty in a word, and, should they not hear the same things constantly, to have failed in their memory, and while recalling them to be cheered up in wondrous wise, if meanwhile they have heard that word. Nor' is their beauty of an ^ Or perhaps, ‘ their form is not commonplace, though not showy to the eye.’ fpeftancla, fatis illis decoris in fpecie fermonis humani eft. Verum addifcere alias negant poffe, quam quae ex genere earum funt, qu^ glande uefcantur, & inter eas facilius, quibus quini funt digiti in pedibus: ac ne eas quidem ipfas, nifi primis duobus uit^ annis. Nuper et adhuc tamen rara ab Appennino ad urbem [p. ii8]uerfus cerni coepere picarum genera, quae longa infignes cauda uariae appellantur, proprium his caluefcere omnibus annis cum feratur rapa. Plinius duo picarum gejiera facere tddetur: pofterius hoc genus Plinij, picarum genus effe uidetur, qtwd paffim in Germania & Anglia longa cauda prceditum, oua & pullos gallinarum poptdatur. Aliud genus piceE, tam longa cauda ornatum, quam hoc eft, non noui. noftra quoque pica uulgaris caluefcere quotannis folet. Alterum autem piece genus diu fane dubitaui quod nam effet, & adhuc non fatis teneo. Ciim effem in Italia a.d ripam Padi, ambulantibus mihi, & itineris mei comi- laiaAn- tibiis, anis qucedam piece fimilis, lingua Britannica glorum, Germanica mercolphus appellata, confpiciendam Germanorl fefe comniodiim obtulit, cuius nomen Italicum quum a monacho quodam, qui tum forte aderat, percontarer, picam granatam dici refpondit. Qua re cum apud Italicum etiam uulgus non folimi priftincE lingucE Romance, fed & rerum fcientice, non obfcura uefligia adhuc fupereffe depreehenderem, fuborta ejl mihi hinc fufpicio, auem hanc e generibus picarum effe, & quod [p. wcpfcirem eandem, altera uulgari pica, multo expreffius Hanc mea humanas uoces imitari, ita fufpicionem meam auxit, Per^Uusi pariim abfit, quin credam hanc effe alterius generis cofirmat, picam, nam 6x glandibus uefeitur magis omnibus alijs quemfiua- auibus. cat lege. 1 Probably Reader in Greek to Edward VI. (cf. Diet. National Biogr. XLV. p. 2i). H5 ordinary sort, though not considerable to the eye ; for them it is enough honour to have a kind of human speech. However people deny that others are able to learn, save those belonging to the group which lives on acorns—and of these again those with the greatest ease which have five toes upon each of their feet: nor even they except during the first two years of life. Of late, however, and as yet infrequently, towards the city from the Appennines there have begun to be observed some sorts of Picae which being remarkable for the length of their tails have been called ‘Aariae.” They have this special mark that they grow bald in every year when rape is sown. Of Picse Pliny seems to make two kinds : this latter kind of his would seem to be that Pie which here and there in Germany and England plunders both the eggs and chicks of fowls, possessing a long tail. I do not know another kind of Pie provided with a tail so long as this. And furthermore our common Pie is wont to grow bald every year. Now what the second sort of Pie might be I doubted very long, nor have I yet grasped it sufficiently. But when I was in Italy upon the banks of the Po, and while my fellow- travellers and I were walking out, a certain bird like a Pie, in English called a Jay, in German mercolphus, offered itself conveniently for observation. Thereupon I asked a certain monk, who then by chance was present, its Italian name, and he replied to me that it was called the Seed Piek When therefore I perceived that with the common people of Italy not only patent traces of the old Roman tongue still actually existed, but also of things scientific, a suspicion rose within me that this bird was of the group of Pies ; moreover, since I knew that the same imitated human tones much more correctly than the other Pie, which is the commoner, so much was I confirmed in my suspicion that I can scarcely refuse to credit that this Pie was Pliny’s second kind, particularly as it lives on acorns more than any other bird. ^ Ghiandaja is the modern Italian name, derived from ‘ glans’ = an acorn. T. lO DE PICO MARTIO. a rayn EpuoKoXdiTTT]^, picus martius, pipo, iynx, torquella, byrde. turho, Auglice & Germanice a fpecht, fpec^t. Aristoteles \ Alia culicibus'^ gaudent, nec alio magis quam uenatu culicum uiuut, ut pipo tum maior tum minor, utrumque picum martium uocant. Similes inter fe funt, uocem43 fimilem emittunt, Galgulum fed maiorem, quae maior eft. Item k6\los\ cui inte?pretatur nnag-nitudo quanta turturi fere eft, color luteus, lignipeta hic admodum eft, magnaq? ex parte more picorum veiierai iirl roiv ^v\wv, quod eft. Id eft, uiuit interpretatur Gaza, ex macerie uiuit: uocem ad hg^na. 120] amittit magnam, incola maxime Peloponefi hic eft. Obferiia ubi Arijloteles duo tantum picorum geiiera facit, ibidem illum galgalum defcribere, & ubi tria facit, eundem omittere. Aristoteles^ lib. 9. cap. 9. de historia ANIMALIUM. Alauda gallinago, & coturnix nunquam in arbore confidunt, fed humi. Contra atqj picus martius, qui nunquam humi confiftere patitur. Tundit hic quercus, uermium & culicu caufa, quo exeant: recipit enim egreffos lingua fua, quam maiufculam, & latiufculam habet. Scadit per arborem omnibus modis: nam uel refu- pinus, more ftellionu, ingreditur. Vngues etiam habet commodiores quam monedula ^ ad tuti- [p. i2i]orem arborum reptationem, his enim adhxis afcendit. Sunt pici Martij cognomine, tria genera : unum minus quam merula, cui rubidae 1 Hist. An. Bk viii. 43—44- ^ Gaza translated Aristotle’s o-Kviy by culex ( = gnat). Most probably it may be used for various small winged creatures. ^ There is another reading, KeXeos. 4 Hist. An. Bk ix. 66—69. ^ KoXoios may be a misreading here and below for kcHos, but this seems doubtful. Of the Picus Martius. /^pvoKoXdiTT'Y]'^, picus martius, pipo, iynx, torquella, turbo, in English and in German a specht, eyn specht. Aristotle. Some birds delight in grubs, and as a rule live on no other prey, as do the great and little Pipo, both of which people call Picus Martius. Resembling one another they utter like cries, although the greater has the louder cry. Again there is the xoXid?, the size of which is, nearly as may be, that of the Turtur, and its colour yellowish. It pecks wood freely, and, as the Pici do, lives for the most part on the trunks, that is, lives on the woodh as Gaza renders it : it utters a loud cry, and is especially a resident in the Peloponnese. Note that, when Aristotle only makes two sorts of Pici, in that passage he describes the Galgulus, when he makes three, he does not mention it. Aristotle book 9, chap. 9, of the history of ANIMALS. Alauda, Gallinago, and Coturnix never alight on trees, but always on the ground. It is however otherwise with Picus Martius, which never can endure sitting upon the ground. It hammers oaks for worms and grubs, that they may shew themselves, and when they issue forth it takes them on its tongue, which it has somewhat long and broad. It climbs about a tree in every way, for it even walks upside down, after the way of Lizards. It has claws better formed for creeping safely on the trees than even the Monedula, and climbs with them stuck in. There are three sorts of birds that have the special name of Picus Martius, one less than a Merula, which has some 1 Cf. p. 88. 10—2 aliquid plumae ineft. Altem maius quam merula : tertium non multo minus quam gallina. Nidulatur in arboribus tum alijs cum oleis. Pafcitur formicis & coffis. Cum coffos uenatur, tam uehementer excauare, ut fternat arbores dicitur. lam uero mitefcens, quidam amygdalu, quod rimae inferuiffet ligni, ut fixu conftanter iblum reciperet, tertio i6lu pertudit, & nucleum edit. Paucis ^ quibufdam utrinque bini ungues ut auiculae, quam Iyngem uocant. Haec paulo maior quam fringilla eft, corpore uario. Habet fibi propriam digitorum, qua modo dixi, difpo- [p. 122] fitionem, & linguam ferpentibus fimilem: quippe quam in longitudinem, menfura quatuor digitorum porrigat, rurfumcj? contrahat intra ro- ftrum, collum etiam porrigit in auerfum reliquo quiefcente corpore, modo ferpentium, unde tor- quilla uulgo appellata efl:: quanquam turbo ab antiquis. Vngues ei grandes, & fimiles, ut monedulis exeunt, uoce autem ftridet. Primtim pici genius Angli fpechtam^ & tmod- fpechtam, Germani eljlerfpechtam nominabit. Secundum genus Angli huholam^ hoc eji, foraminum dolator em, Geinnanigrunfprechtd nuncupant. Tertiii genus A nglia no no2dt, Germani aiit crafpechtain d. cornicimmi picum appellat, quod cornicem plumarii colore & mag7ii- Uidme etiam pene cequet. Plinuis prceter hcEc tria A riflotelis genera, quartum pici genus facere uidetur, nam lib. 10. cap. 33 fcribit. picum aliquem fufpendere nidum in furcido pidmis in ramis cyathi modo, ut nulla quadrupes pof/it accedere. Prceter uireonem folum, in Europa nullam alia [p. 123] auem ita nididari noui. Quare nullam aliam, quam hanc, quce pici quartum genus effe poffit, inuenio. ^ Hist. An. Bk ii. 46—47. Picus minimus. Medius. Maximus. feathers red. The second bigger than a Merula, the third not much less than a barn-door hen. It breeds in various trees and olives in particular. It feeds on ants and grubs, and when hunting for grubs is said to excavate so vigorously as to fell trees. Indeed one that was tamed broke at the third attempt an almond which it had inserted in a chink of the wood, that being fixed it might more surely receive the stroke, and ate the kernel out. In some few birds there are two claws in front and two behind, as in the little bird which men call lynx. This kind is not much larger than a Fringilla, and has the body mottled. It has moreover the peculiar arrangement of the toes, of which I have just spoken, and a tongue like that of serpents, for it shoots it out up to a distance of four fingers’ length, and draws it back again within the beak ; it twists its neck moreover backwards, with its body still, just as the serpents do, whence it is commonly called Torquilla, although it is the Turbo of old writers. It has claws of great size, which are like those that grow on the Monedula, it has a strident cry. Of Picus the first kind the English call the Specht and Wodspecht, which the Germans name the elsterspecht. The second kind Englishmen term Hewhole, that is, hewer of holes, the Germans grunspecht The third kind England knows not, but in Germany they call k craspecht or the Crow- Picus, for it is very nearly like a Crow in colour of the plumage and also in size. Besides these three sorts of Aristotle Pliny seems to make a fourth, for in Book 10 and chapter 33 he tells us that a certain Picus hangs its nest, in fashion like a cup, upon a twig among the outer branches of a tree, so that no quadruped is able to come nigh, Except the Vireo alone, I know no other bird in Europe which places its nest in such a way. Wherefore I find no other than the above which the fourth kind of Picus possibly can be. DE P SIT ACO. PJltams^ Anglice a popiniay, Germanice ei)U papegcU)- Aristoteles \ Nam & Indica auis, cui nomen pfitacse, quam loqui aiunttalis eft, & loquacior^ quum biberit uinum, redditur. Plinius'*. Super omnia humanas uoces reddunt pfitaci, & quidem fermocinantes. India auem hanc mittit. Pfitacen uocant, uiride toto corpore, torque tantu miniato in ceruice diftindla. Imperatores falutat, & quae accipit uerba, pro- nunciat: in uino pcipue lafciua. Capiti eius duritia eadem quae roflro. Haec cu loqui difcit, ferreo uerberatur radio : no fentit aliter idlus. [p. 124] Cum deuolat, rofhro fe excipit, illi innititur, le- uioremqj fe ita pedum infirmitati facit. DE PLATEA. HeKeicav, platea, platelea, pelecamcs, Anglice a shonelard, Germa. epn lefler/ oP epn fojfcf ga^. Aristoteles®. Platea fluuiatilis, conchas maiufculas, le- uescj^ deuorat, quas ubi fua ingluuie coxerit, euomit, ut hiantibus teftis exuens, legat atque edat. Plinius Platea nominatur aduolans ad eas, quae fe in mari mergunt, & capita illarum morfu corri- 1 Hist. An. Bk viii. 85. ro Xeyofievov dvdpcoTroyXcoTTOV. 2 (XKoXaoTorepov = reckless. Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xli. ° Hist. An. Bk ix. 71. ® Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xl. Of the Psitacus. Psitacus, in English a popinjay, in German eyn papegay. Aristotle. An Indian bird indeed, the Psitace by name, which people say can speak, is such a one as this, and is reported as more talkative after it has drunk wine. Pliny. Beyond all Psitaci repeat men’s words, and even talk connectedly. India sends this bird, which they call Psitace, with the whole body green marked only by a scarlet ring upon the nape. It will pronounce “ Hail Emperor,” and any words it hears; it is especially sportive after wine. The hardness of the head is the same as of the beak. And when the bird is being taught to speak, it is beaten with an iron rod, else it feels not the strokes. When it flies down it receives its weight upon its beak, and supports itself thereon ; and thus lightens itself to remedy the weakness of its feet. Of the Platea. IVeXeKCLv, platea, platelea, pelecanus, in English, a shove- lard, in German eyn lefler or eyn loffel ganss. Aristotle. The Platea, a river bird, devours biggish shellfish, if they be but smooth, and, after it has seethed them in its crop, it casts them up again, that stripping them off from their gaping shells, it so may pick and •eat them. Pliny. The Platea, as it is called, flies at those birds which dive below the sea, and seizes their heads with a bite piens, donec capturam extorqueat. Eadem cum fe deuoratis impleuit conchis, calore uen- tris codlas, euomit, atque ita efculenta legit, teftas excernens. 125] H lERONYMUS. Pelicani cum fuos a ferpente filios occifos inueniunt, lugent, fecj? & fua latera percutiunt, & fanguine excuffo, corpora mortuorum fic re- uiuifcunt. Conradus GeJineriLS^ cum Tiguri agerem, homo ut doclijjimus, ita candidijjimus, huius mihi aids cognitionem {ut fatear, per quem profeci) primus omniu communicauit, & ideo Germanis leflerd uocari docuit, quod rojiru cochleari fimile haberet. De porphyrione ex Plinio \ Porphyrio folus morfu bibit: idem ex proprio genere omnem cibii aqua fubinde tingens, deinde pede ad roftrum ueluti manu adferes, laudatiffimi in comagene^. Roftra ijs & praelonga crura rubent. DE REGVLO. Tpo^/Xo?, 7rpea/3v<s, /SaacXev^, trochilus, fenator, regidus, Anglice a uuren, Germanice evqt funingfgen/ ober e^n ^aunfuningf. 26] Aristoteles l Trochilus & fruteta incolit, & foramina, capi difficulter potefl, fugax atque infirmis moribus eft, fed uiftus probitate, & ingenij folertia praeditus. uocatur idem fenator & rex, quam ob rem aquilam cum eo pugnare referunt. 1 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xlvi. ^ It almost seems as if ‘Comagene’ should be ‘Commageno,’ in which case we might translate ‘They are highly prized for ointment.’ ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 75. until it wrenches their prey from them. So too when it has filled itself with shell-fish that it has devoured, it casts them up, seethed by its belly’s heat, and so picks out the eatable parts, sifting off the shells. Hieronymus. Pelecani, when they find their young killed by a serpent, mourn, and beat themselves upon their sides, and with the blood discharged, they thus bring back to life the bodies of the dead. Conrad Gesner, a man most learned as he also was most truthful, first imparted to me while I was at Zurich knowledge of th is bird (that I may own from whom I profited), and taught me that it was called lefler by Germans because it has a spoon-shaped beak. Of the Porphyrio from Pliny. The Porphyrio alone drinks with a bite, it also is peculiar in dipping all its food from time to time in water, and then bearing it to its beak with its foot, as with a hand. The best are found in Comagene. Their beaks and very long legs are red. Of the Regulus. rrpeajSv^, ^aaiXev^, trochilus, senator, regulus, in English a wren, in German eyn kuningsgen or eyn zaun- kuningk. Aristotle. The Trochilus inhabits shrubberies and holes, and cannot easily be caught. Now it is shy and of a feeble habit, but endowed with great ability of getting food and knowledge of its craft. The same is called both senator and king, on which account the Aquila, they say, fights with it. Trochilus, eft auium omnium minima, cauda longa & femper ereTta, rojlro longiufculo, fed tenuijjimo, colore fere fuluo. nidum facit foris ex mufco, mtus ex plumis aut lana, atU floccis, fed plurimfi ex plumis. Old eredli & in altero fiw fine cofiflentis, forma nidus habet, in medio tiebiti latere hofiiolum efi, per quod ingreditur & egredititr. In pofticis cedibus & flabilis flramine tedlis, interdu nidu conftndt, fed fcepms in fyluis. aids eft etiam foliuaga, & gregatim nunquam uolat, imb quoties alium ftd generis offendit, mox illi bellum indicit, & confiiTtatur. Quare aues illcB, quce in Bauaria pennis auricoloribus, quas in capitibus ceu coronas aureas ferunt, in fylids ceflate degentes, & gregatim ad urbes hyeme aduolantes, reguli non funt fed tyranni Ariftotelis, ut pofiea docebo. [p. 127] DE RVBECVLA ET ruticilla. Rubecula rj epiOea, rubecula, Anglice a robin red- brefie, Germanice ei)U rotbruft/ ober ei)n rbtfelc^eu. Ruticilla. ^oLviKovp6<^, &, ut alter textus habet, (pocvc/covpyo^;, Plinio phoenicurus, Gazce ruticilla, Anglice a rede tale, Germanice ei)n rot Aristoteles^ Rubecula & ruticilla uermibus aluntur. Rubeculae, & quae ruticillae appellantur, inuicem tranfeunt, efbque rubecula hyberni temporis, ruticilla aeftiui, nec alio fere inter fe differunt, nifi pectoris colore & caudq l 1 Hist. An. Bk ix. 256. 2 The three words ‘pectoris & caude ’ are not in Aristotle. The Trochilus is smallest of all birds, with a long taib always cocked up, and a bill somewhat long but very slender, it is nearly reddish-brown in colour. The nest it makes is outwardly of moss and inwardly of feathers, wool, or down, but mainly of feathers. The nest has the form of an upright egg standing on one of its ends, while in the middle of one side there is a little postern as it were, by which the bird goes in and out It sometimes builds its nest at the back of a house or in sheds thatched with straw, but usually in woods. It also is a bird that roves alone, and never flies in flocks ; nay more, so often as it meets another of its kind it forthwith declares war, and fights. Wherefore the birds with plumes of gold-colour that they wear on their heads like golden crowns, which pass the summer in Bavaria in woods, and in the winter flock to towns, are not the Reguli of Aristotle, as I presently shall prove, but the Tyranni. Of the Rubecula and the Ruticilla. ’Eptda/co?, r\ epiOea, rubecula, in English a robin redbreste, in German eyn rotbrust or eyn rotkelchen. ^oivinovpo^^ and, as another text has it, cjioLVLKovpyo^, in Pliny phoenicurus, the ruticilla of Gaza, in English a rede tale, in German eyn rotstertz. Aristotle. The Rubecula and the Ruticilla feed on worms. Rubeculse and Ruticillae, as the birds are called, change into one another, and what in winter is the Rubecula in summer is the Ruticilla", while they hardly differ from each other save in colour of the breast and tail. 1 Turner evidently means the Wren {^Troglodytes parvulus)^ but with this the Hong tail’ does not agree; perhaps there is a misprint. ^ As Sundevall remarks, Aristotle probably only meant that the Redstart was called (poivLKovpos in summer and iplduKos in winter. Sundevall ascribes the misinterpretation to Gaza, whose work Turner admittedly used. This is the more likely as the section of Aristotle quoted concerns birds which change their plumage and note at different seasons. Oninia^ qucB hie Arijloteles de dttabus auibtis ijlis cojifcripjit^ Plinuts ex ipfo in opus fimm tranfcripjlt. Sed uterque hac in re^ aucupuui relatibits rnagls quani fiia experientia nixus, a ueritatis tramite longifjime aberrauit, nam lUraque auis fimul confpicitur, & ru~ beculce domitcB, & in catieis alitce, eandem perpetuo formam retinent, quin & eodem tempore nidulantes, [p. \2Z'\fed modis longe diuerfis fcepiffime in Anglia nidi. Rubecula, quee non /ecus eeflate quam liyeme rubru habet pectus, quam pofjit longiffime ab oppidis et urbibus in denfijjimis uepretis, & fruticetis ad hunc modum nidulatiLr. Vbi midta querna reperit folia, aut quernis fimilia, ad radices uepritmi, aut denfiorum fruticum, inter ipfa folia 7iidum confiruit: & iam conftruPtum, opere ueluti topiario folijs contegit. Nec ad nidum icbif patet aditus, fed ima tantum uia ad nidum itur. ea quoque parte, qua nidum ingreditur, longum Jlruit ex folijs ante hoftium nidi ueftibulum, cuius extremam partem paflum exies, folijs claudit. Hcec, quee nunc feribo, admodum puer obferuaui, non tamen inficias iuerim, quin aliter iiididari pojjit. Si qid alium nidulandi modum obferuauerint, edant, & hidufrnodi rerum fludiofis, & mihi cum primis no parum gratificabuntur. Ego, quod iddi, alijs candide fum impertitus. Phoenicurus, quem rubicilland uocat, in excauatis arboribus & {quod fcepe expertus funi) in rimts & fiffuris murorum, pofiicarum cediil, in medijs urbibus, fed ubi hominum minor frequentia concurfat, nidulatur. Phcenicurus mas nigro efi capite, & cauda rubra, ccetera foemince, nifi quod fubinde cantillat, fimilis. Caudam ^ ^ 'H'totitat iderque. Phoenicura fcemina, & proles tante nun- adeo rubecidce pullis fimiles funt, ut tdx ab ocidatifjimo quam au lui. pofjlnt. Verum motu caudee dignofeuntur. Rubecidce licet caudam moneant, poftquam tamen fub- miferint, Jiatini erigunt, nec tremit bis aut ter more ruticillaru. Ruticillce enim Jlmul atque caudam monere ceperint, non ceffant donec ter aut quater jlmul ^ No doubt a misprint for Ruticilla, cf. pp. 154, 160. Rubecul^ nidulatio Phoenicuri nidulatio. Rubecula yaftpfp ran. All that Aristotle here has written of these two birds Pliny has copied from him into his own work. But in this matter each of them, relying on the tales of fowlers more than on his own experience, has wandered greatly from the path of truth. For both the birds are seen at the same time; moreover tame Rubeculae, when fed in cages, constantly retain the same appearance. Moreover I have very often seen the birds in England nesting at the same time, though in very different ways. The Rubecula, which has a rudd}^ breast no less in summer than in winter, nests as far as possible from towns and cities in the thickest briers and shrubs after this fashion. Where it finds oak leaves in plenty, or leaves like the oak, it builds its nest among the leaves themselves close to the roots of briers or the thicker shrubs : and when completed covers it with leaves as if with topiary work. Nor does access lie open to the nest on every side, but by one way alone is entrance gained. And at that place where it enters the nest the bird builds a long porch of leaves before the doorway and, on going forth to feed, closes the end with leaves. But, what I now describe, I first observed when quite a boy, nevertheless I am not going to deny that it may build otherwise. If any have observed another way of nesting, let them tell it, and they certainly will not a little gratify the students of such things, myself among the first. I have imparted truthfully to others what I saw. The Phoenicurus which he [Gaza] calls the Rubicilla nests in hollow trees and (as I often have had experience) in chinks and cracks of walls and outhouses in the midst of our towns, though where the throng of men is not so great. The male has a black head, a red tail, but otherwise is like the female, save that he repeatedly utters a little song. Either sex flirts the tail continually. The female Phoenicurus and its brood are so much like young of Rubecula that they can scarcely be distinguished by the sharpe.st eye. But by the motion of the tail they may be recognised. P'or the Rubeculae, although they move the tail, yet, after they have lowered it, at once raise it again, nor does it quiver twice or thrice as does that of the Ruticilla. For no sooner have the Ruticillae once begun to move the tail than they go on till they have lightly moved it three or four times altogether leniter monermt, ut alas^ iuniores auicul(2 cibitni a ina- trihis efflagitantes, motitant. R2Lhecnl(E in cejlate, tthi in fylnis fatis fuperq-, alimenti fuppetit, nec ullo in- feffanhLr frigore, {quce res cogit illas in hyeme ad tirhes, oppida & pagos confugere) citm prole ad defertiffma qncEq', loca fecedimt. Quare, miniis mirand^im ef, 2nibec2das in cejiate 21011 pqffim occitrrere. Ruticillas quid miri eft in hyeme no effe obuias, quum per totam liyemem delitefcantf Adlicec cum imbecidcE pidli, in fine autumni perfedlain fere in pectoribus ridiedinem naCli, ad pagos & oppida propius accedunt, ruticillce, quce antea per totam ceflatem ceiniebantur, difparent, nec amplius in pi'oximum ufque uer cernuntur. Quce quiim ita fe habeant, quid Arifloteli aut illi hoc ;r- feluentibus eimoris anfam prcebueidt, facile quiids potefl colligere. DE RVBETRA. j Bort?, Latine imbetra didta, ab Aidflotele inter aidcidas uermiuoras numeratur. Porro, qucE'nam aids fit, pi^oifus diidnaix non poffum. Gybei'tus Longolius linaidam, fiue miliariam effe imbetrd pidabatl quod I'ldns crebiv infideat. Sed quum Angloi'um buntinga in inibis tam freques fit, quid uetat quo miniis & ipfa quoq\ batis dici pojjit. Nihil igitur cei'ti habemus, quod nomen Britannicum aut Geinnanicum fit huic aid imponendum. Sed quum auium fupra commemoratainim altera feminibus heiParil uefcatur, & altera hordeo & tidtico, & batis Arifi. ueinniuoi^a fit, delegeda eft aidcula quce- piam, quce folis uermibus pafcitur, qualis efi anicula Anglis ftonchattera, aut mortettera diSla, & Geinnano- riim klein brachuogelchen. Hcec fi batis non fit, mihi prorfus ignota efi. Pori'b illa, quam Angli linotani, & Gemnani fiasfincam uocant, ueteribus, fi Ruellio, ci'edimiis, erit miliaina. R^tbecula—Ritticilla—Rubetra t 59 \ just as young small birds flutter their wings soliciting meat from their mothers. In summer, when there is enough and more of food found in the woods, and they are not troubled by any cold (a thing which forces them in winter to resort to cities, towns, and villages), Rubeculse retire to the most solitary places with their young. And so it is no marvel that Rubeculae do not occur in summer everywhere. And what wonder is it that Ruticillse are not met with in winter, since throughout the whole of winter they are hidden } And further, when the young Rubeculae, having almost assumed the full red on their breasts at the end of autumn, come nearer to towns and villages, the Ruticillae, which were hitherto seen during the whole summer, disappear and then are no more noticed till the following spring. Wherefore, things being thus, anyone may easily perceive what gave a handle to Aristotle or to those who reported this error to him. Of the Rubetra. Bart?, in Latin called Rubetra, is by Aristotle classed among the little birds that feed on worms. Beyond this I cannot guess at all what sort the bird may be. Yet Gybertus Long-olius^ believed that the Rubetra was the Linaria or the Miliaria, because it often perched on brambles. But since the Bunting of the English sits so commonly on brambles, what forbids that bird from also being called the Batis ? On this account we have no certainty as to what name, British or German, should be given to this bird. But inasmuch as of the birds mentioned above the one eats seeds of grasses, and the other wheat and barley, and as Aristotle’s Batis lives on worms, some small bird must be chosen which eats worms and nothing else. Now such a little bird is that called by the English Stonchatter or Mortetter and the klein brachvogelchen of the Germans. If this be not the Batis, it is quite unknown to me. Besides that which the English call the Linot and the Germans the flasfinc must be the Miliaria of older works, if we believe Ruelliusl 1 For this author see Introduction. 2 Ruellius wrote De natura sth'pium libri tres (1536) and edited one or more medical or other works. DE RVBICILLA. HvppovXa^;, rubicilla, Angli, a bulfinche, Gernia. ei)n bloDtfincf. Rubicillaui Arijloteles ititer eas aues connumerat, quce uermibus uefcunUir: fed pluribus uerbis earn non defcribit. Ego nominis etymologiam fecutus, rubicillam [p* 131] Anglorum bulfincam, & Germanojnmi blouduincam ejfe eonijcio. Nam omnium, qttas unquam uidi auium mas in hoc ge7iere,peElore efl longe rubidiffimo \ foemma uero peEtore toto ejl cinereo, ecetera mari fimilis. Sed ut faeilius omnes intelligafit, de qua aiie fcribam, magnitudine pafferis ejl, rojlro breuijfimo, latif/imo, et nigerrimo, lingua latiore multb qua pro corporis mag7ii- Uidine. Pars ea linguce, quce cibi fapores dijudicans, oris codum tangit, carnea & nuda eji, reliquce partes cornea pellietda obdiLcuntur. Supremam aids partem plumee cyanece contegunt, cauda nigra ejl, & capite etiam nigro, iiefcitur libentijfime primis illis gemmis ex arboribus ante folia & flores erumpentibus, & femine eanabino. aids eJi imprimis docilis, & fijlulam uoce fua proxime imitatur, nidulatur in fepibus, & oua quatuor excludit, ut plurima quinq\. eundem colorem per totum annum feruat, nee locum mutat. Quce quum ita fe habeant, non potefi heee atricapilla effe, ut quidam uolunt, utcunq\ extremo linguce acumine carere uideatur. DE SALO, QVI GREECE di’^idofi dicitur. Aristoteles \ [p. 132] Salus uitae commoditate, & partus numero commendatur, fed alterius pedis clauditate cedit. Sali & flori fanguine mifceri negant, ta ingens inter falum & floru feruet odiu. Salo etiam preliu cu aflno eft, propterea quod aflnus fpi- Of the Rubicilla. UvppovXa^^, rubicilla, in English a bulfinche, in German eyn blodtfinck, Aristotle counts the Rubicilla among those birds which feed on worms: but he does not describe it in more words. I, following the derivation of the name, conjecture that it is the Bulfinc of the English and the bloudvinc of the Germans. Eor of all the birds I ever saw the male of this kind has by far the reddest breast: the female however has the breast wholly grey, though otherwise like the male. But, that all may understand more easily about which bird I write, it is the size of a Sparrow, with the beak particularly short and broad and black, the tongue much broader than is in proportion to its body. That part of the tongue which discriminates the flavour of the food and meets the palate of the mouth is flesh- coloured and naked, while the other parts are covered with a horny pellicle. Bluish grey feathers clothe the upper parts. The tail is black and the head also black. It feeds most greedily on those earliest buds, which burst out on the trees before the leaves and flowers, as well as hemp-seed. It is the readiest bird to learn, and imitates a pipe very closely with its voice. It nests in hedges where it lays four eggs or five at most. It keeps the same colour throughout the year, and does not change its home. And since these things are so, it cannot be the Atricapilla, as some will have it, though it may appear to lack the point at the tip of the tongue. Of the Salus, which in Greek is called alyiOo^;. Aristotle. The Salus is well thought of for its skill in gaining a livelihood, and for the number of its young, although it suffers from lameness in one of its feet. And men deny that the blood of the Salus and the Florus ever mixes, for so great an enmity rages between the birds. There is war also between the Salus and the Ass, 1 Sundevall thinks that the UvppoCXas is the Redbreast, but the description does not agree with his idea. Another reading is Trvppovpds. T. II netis fua ulcera fcabendi caufa atterat: tum igitur ob eam rem, tu etiam quod fi uocem rudentis audierit\ oua abigat per abortum, pulli etiam metu in terram labantur. ’ Itaque ob eam iniuriam aduolas, ulcera eius roftro excauat. PliniusI Aegithus auis minima cum afino pugnat, fpinetis enim fe fcabendi caufa atterens, nidos eius diffipat, quod adeo pauet, ut uoce audita omnino rudentis oua eijciat, & pulli ipfi metu [p- 133] cadant: igitur aduolans ulcera eius roftro excauat. DE SITTA. Sitta, Anglice a mit iobber, Germanice e^n nui^^dffev ober mei)fpe(f)t. Aristoteles l Sunt & ei, quse fitta dicitur, mores pugnaces, fed animus hilaris, cocinnus, compos uitae facilioris. Re maleficam illi tribuunt, quia rerum callat cognitione, prolem numerofam facilemcjj progignit, cariofa ligna contundens, ex coffis, quos inde eruit, uidlitat. Sitta ^ aquilae oua frangit, aquila tum ob eam rem, quum etiam quod carniuora eft, aduerfatur. Auicnla, quam Angli nucipetam uocant, & Germajti meyfpechUmi, paro maximo paulo maior eft, pennis cyaneis, rofro longiufculo, & per arbo7'es eodem modo, quo picus afcendit, & eafdem uiTtus gratia contimdit: nuces roftro etiam perforat, & 7iucleos commedit. nidu- [p. 134] latur in ca7tis arboribus more pici, uoce ualde acuta & fonora eft. ^ Aristotle has ‘ Kav oyK^crrjrai, eK^aXXet ra coa Kai rovs veoTTovsl as if the bray of the ass shook the eggs and young out of the nest. Gaza seems to have had the reading eKTiKTOvai for iKTriTTrovai 2 Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. Ixxiv. 3 Hist. An. Bk ix. 91, very freely rendered. 4 Hist, An, Bk IX. 17 because the Ass is wont to rub its sores against the thorn-bushes to scratch them, therefore for this cause, and also because the bird has heard the brayer’s voice it prematurely drops its eggs, while even nestlings fall down to the ground with fear. So for that injury (the bird) attacking it scoops out its sores. Pliny. The ^githus, a very little bird, wages war with the Ass, because it, rubbing against thorn-bushes to scratch itself, destroys the nest, and this the bird dreads so much that, if it merely hears the brayePs voice, it drops its eggs, and the young also fall to the ground with fear. Accordingly attacking it the bird scoops out its sores. Of the Sitta. Sitta, in English a nut jobber, in German eyn nushakker or eyn meyspecht. Aristotle. That bird which is called Sitta has pugnacious habits but a cheerful disposition ; it is elegant and well adapted to get food with ease. Yet men attribute witchcraft to it, since it is cunning in knowledge of affairs ; it produces numerous young with ease ; hammering on rotten trees, it lives upon the grubs which thence it digs. The Sitta breaks the eggs of the Aquila, on which account, and also since it is carnivorous, the Aquila is its enemy. The small bird which the English call the Nut-seeker and Germans the meyspecht is somewhat bigger than the biggest Parus, with blue plumage and a longish beak. It climbs trees in the same way as the Picus, and hammers the same for food; it also bores nuts with its beak, and eats the kernels. It nests in hollow trees, as does the Picus, while its note is very sharp and loud. DE STRVTHIONE. ^rpovOoq, Xi^vKo^i, Jlruthio^ aut Jiruthiocametus^ Angtice an oiji^'is, Germartice e^n ftrau^. Aristoteles \ Struthio, etiam libicus, eodem modo partim auem, partim quadrupedem refert, quippe qui non ut quadrupes pennas habeat, ut non auis fublimis non uolet, nec pennas ad uolandum commodas gerit, fed pilis fimiles. Ite quafi quadrupes fit, pilos habet palbebrq fuperioris, & gibber^ capite, parte colli fuperiore eft. Itac^J cilia habet pilofiora, fed quafi auis fit, infra pennis integitur. Bipes etiam tanquam auis, bif- fulcus tanquam quadrupes eft. No enim digitos habet, fed ungulam bipartitam, quarum rerum [p. i35]caufa eft, quod magnitudine non auis, fed quadrupes eft. Magnitudinem enim auiu minimam effe prope dixerim, neceffe eft. Corpus enim molem fublimem mouere, nequaquam facile eft. DE STVRNO. ^opo<^, Jlurnus, Angtice a Jierlyiig, Germanice ftar/ ober ev)n ftor. Aristoteles l Sturnus niger eft, albis maculis diftindtus, magnitudine merulae. Plinius f Sturnorum generi proprium, cateruatim uo- lare, & quodam pilae orbe circumagi, omnibus in medium agmen tendentibus. ^ De partibus Animalium^ IV. 14. 2 No doubt a misprint for ‘glaber.’ ^ Hist. An. Bk IX. 102, freely rendered. ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. X, cap, xxiv. Strti th io—turmis Of the Struthio. 'ErpovOo^:, \l^vk6<;, struthio or struthiocamelus, in English an oistris, in German eyn strauss. Aristotle. The Struthio, or Libyan bird, in like manner partly recalls a bird, partly a quadruped, seeing that it, unlike a quadruped, has wings, and yet, unlike a bird, it does not fly aloft, nor has it feathers fit for flight, since they resemble hairs. Likewise as if it were a quadruped, it has hairs on the upper eyelid, while the head and upper portion of the neck are bare. So also it has somewhat hairy eyelashes, yet it is covered with feathers beneath, as if it were a bird. Moreover it is biped like a bird, but yet it is cloven-footed like a quadruped. That is, it has not toes but a divided hoof. The cause of these things is that in its size it is not a bird but a quadruped. For I would almost say that a bird’s size must be extremely small, for it is by no means easy to move aloft a body when the mass is vast. Of the Sturnus. T«/309, sturnus, in English a sterlyng, in German eyn star or eyn stor. Aristotle. The Sturnus is black, varied with white spots, and of the bigness of a Merula. Pliny. It is peculiar to Starlings in their kind to fly in crowds, and wheel about as it were in a ball, all tending to the middle of the band. DE TINVNCVLO. Kejxpt^, tinunculus, Anglice a kijlrel, or a kajlj^el, or a JleingalL Aristoteles \ [p. 136] Omnes, quibus ungues adunci, parcius generant, excepto tinunculo, qui plurima in adunco genere parit. lam enim quatuor eius reperti funt pulli, fed plures etiam procreari poffe, apertum eft. Tinunculo^ uentriculus ingluuiei fimilis eft, & folus in adunco genere bibit. Rubra funt eius oua modo minij. Timmcultts colore niulto magis eji fuluo quam reliqui accipitres, & corpore paruo, Auiculas infequitur, &, ut quidam mihi rettdere, papiliones interdum. In cauis fiidulatur arboribus, & in templorum muris, & ceditioribus turribus, ut apitd Germanos Argentorati & Colonice, & apud Anglos Morpeti obferuaui. pullos etiam dm twlantes tantifper alit, du ipji ex proprio tienatu uiuere poffut. DE TETRAONE. Tirpc^, 6' vpa^, tetrao, Anglice a bujiard, or a bijiard, Germanice i\)\\ trap/ obev epn trap ganf. Aristoteles^ [p* 137] Tetrix, quam Athenienfes uragem uocant, nec terrae, nec arbori fuum nidum committit, fed frutici ^ Plinius Decet tetraones fuus nitor, abfolutacjj nigritia, in fupercilijs cocci rubor. Alterum eorum genus uulturum magnitudine excedit, quorum ^ Hist. An. Bk VI. 2. 2 Hist. A?t. Bk II. 88, Bk vili. 50, Bk VI. 6. ^ Hist. An. Bk, vi. 4. Aristotle has -^ayLadrikoLs (f)vTo7s. ^ Hist." Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxii. Of the Tinnunculus. Ke7;)^/c>t9, tinnunculus, in English a kistrel or a kastrel, or a steingall. Aristotle. All birds with crooked claws^ breed somewhat sparingly, save the Tinnunculus, and it of all the crooked-claw kind lays the most eggs. For of this . bird four young have been already found, while it is evident that more might be produced. The stomach in Tinnunculus is not unlike a crop, whereas it is the only one of all the crooked-claw kind that drinks. Its eggs are red—like scarlet. The Tinnunculus is of a much more fulvous colour than are other Hawks, and small in body. It chases little birds, and, as some men have told me, butterflies at times. It nests in hollow trees, church walls, and lofty towers, as I have seen in Germany at Strassburg and at Cullen, and in England at Morpeth. It also feeds its young long after they can fly until such time as they can live apart by hunting for themselves. Of the Tetrao. Terpt^, ovpa^, tetrao, in English a bustard or a bistard, in German eyn trap or eyn trap ganss. Aristotle. The Tetrix, which Athenians call the Urax, trusts its nest not to the ground, nor to a tree, but to low- growing plants. Pliny. Their glossy plumage well becomes the Tetraones, as does furthermore their perfect blackness and the scarlet redness of their eyebrows. But one kind exceeds in size the vultures and recalls their colour- 1 For Aristotle’s groups of Birds see p. 35. et colorem reddit. Nec ulla anis, excepto ftruthiocamelo, maius corpore imples pondus, in tantum aufta, ut in terra quoqj praehendatur. gignunt eos alpes, & feptentrionalis regio. In uiuarijs faporem perdunt. Moriuntur contumacia fpiritu reuocato. Proximae eis funt, quas Hifpani aues tardas appellat, Graecia otidas danatas cibis. Emiffa enim offibus medulla, odoris tedium extemplo fequitur. [p. 138] DE TYRANNO. Tyrannus, A^iglice a nyn murder, Germanice neun murter/ ober e^n golb ^enblin. Aristoteles b Vefcitur & uermibus tyrannus, cui corpus non multo amplius qua locuftae, crifta rutila ex pluma elatiufcula, & caetera elegans, cantucj? fuauis haec auicula eft. Qiianquam A rijioteles unum tantum tyranni genus faciat, Colonienfes tamen aucupes tria genera effe contendunt. Primum uocant die groffe neun murder, quod Angli etiam fchricum nominant: & ego Ariftoteles mollicipitem effe conijcio: fiurnum magnitudine cequat, color eius d cyaneo ad cinereum uergit. Secundum genus eiufdem eft coloris, cuius & fuperius, fed pafferem magnitudine non excedit. Hoc genus etiam in aues fcEuit. Tertium genus, quod Ariftotelis tyrannus eft, auicula eft regulo paulo maior, crifta rutila redimita, & ccBteris generibus (Ji aucupibus credere phas‘d fit) cede^ & corporis effigie non diffimilis. Secundum & tertium tyranni genus apud Anglos hadlenus nunquam uidere [p. 139] (S’ primum genus licet in Anglia fit, paucif- fiimis tamen notum eft: funt tamen, qui norunt, & shricum uocant. ^ Hist. An. Bk viii. 41. 2 Of course a misprint for ‘fas.’ ^ No doubt this should be ‘ sede.’ ing. There is no other bird, except the Struthio- camelus, which attains so great a weight of body, growing to such a size that it may even be caught upon the ground. The Alps produce them, as do northern lands. In mews they lose their flavour. They die of stubbornness by holding back their breath. Very near them are those which Spaniards call “Aves tardae” and Greece “Otides”; they are condemned as food. For when the marrow issues from the bones, disgust at the smell follows there and then\ Of the Tyrannus. Tyrannus, in English a nyn murder, in German eyn neun murder or eyn gold hendlin. Aristotle. The Tyrannus also lives on wormsl Its body is but little larger than a locust’s is. This little bird moreover has a somewhat upright crest of reddish feathers, and is otherwise pretty ; its song is sweet. Though Aristotle makes but one kind of Tyrannus, yet the bird-catchers of Cullen state that there are three. The first they call die grosse neun murder, which the English name the Schric for their part, this I take to be the Molliceps of Aristotle. In size it equals the Sturnus, while its colour verges from blue to grey. The second kind is of the same colour as the foregoing, but in size does not exceed a Sparrow. Furthermore this kind is cruel towards other birds. The third kind, which is Aristotle’s Tyrannus, is a small bird which is little bigger than the Regulus, adorned with a red crest and not unlike the other kinds (if it be right to trust the fowlers) in its haunts and form of body. It has not ever happened to me hitherto in England to observe the second or the third kind of Tyrannus and, although the first exists in England, it is known to very few. Yet there are some who know it and who call it Shric. ^ See p. 106. 2 See p. 35. DE TRYNGA. trynga^ Anglice a uuater hen, or a mot hen, Germanice ei^n tpaffer §en. Aristoteles \ Lacus & fluuios petunt iunco, cinclus, & trynga^, quae inter haec minora, maiufcula eft, turdo enim aequiparatur: omnibus his cauda motitat. lam, ut fciatis, quam aicem try7igam effe pritem, ams tota ptclla ejl, excepta ea caudce parte, quce podicem tegit, ea emm candida ejl, & tum cernitur, ciim caudam erigit, alis parum ualet, atque ideo breues facit uo- latus. In Jiagnis, qucB nobilium cedes obducunt, & in pifcinis apud Anglos plerunq\ degit. Si quando periclitatur, ad arundineta denfiora /olet confugere. DE rVRDO. Y^igka, turdus, Anglice a thrufche, Germanice e^n frammefuogd/ oter e^u ma(f)^oiteruogel 140] Aristoteles^ Turdorum tria funt genera, unu uisciuoru, quod nifi uifco refmacj? non uefcitur, & ma"gni- tudine picae eft. Alterum pilare, quod fonat acute. & magnitudine merulae eft. Tertium quod iliacum quidam uocat, minimum inter hqc, minus'que maculis diftindtum eft. Mutab^ & turdus colore, quippe collo aeftate uarius, hyeme diftindtus fpedletur, uoce tame eade eft. Turdus ® nidos ex luto, ut hirundines, facit, in ex- celfis arboribus, ita deinceps continuato opere, 1 Hist. An. Bk viii. 47. ^ Another reading is irvyapyos; but this word is elsewhere used of an Eagle, cf. p. 30. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 96. ^ Hist. An. Bk IX. 254. ^ Hist. An. Bk vi. 3. Of the Trynga. T/oi;77<x9, trynga, in English a water hen or a mot hen, in German eyn wasser hen. Aristotle. The Junco and the Cincius live on lakes and streams, as does the Trynga, which among these little birds is somewhat largest, for it equals in its size a Turdus; all these wag their tails. And now, that you may know what bird I think the Trynga is, it is an altogether dusky bird, save that part of the tail which lies above the vent, for that is white and only visible when it erects its tail. It is weak on the wing, and therefore takes short flights. In England for the most part it haunts moats which surround the houses of the great, and fishponds. If danger ever threatens it is wont to flee to the thicker reed-beds. Of the Turdus. K/%Xa, turdus, in English a thrusche, in German eyn kramrnesvogel or eyn wachholtervogel. Aristotle. There are three kinds of Turdi, one of which is called the Viscivorus, since it feeds on naught but mistletoe and gum, and is of the size of a Pica. The second, the Pilaris, which has a sharp note, is of the same size as a Merula. The third, which some call the Iliacus, is the least of them and less marked with spots. The Turdus changes colour also, since it may be seen mottled upon the neck in summer, while in winter it is spotted, though its voice continues similar. The Turdus makes its nests of mud, as do Hirundines, and places them in lofty trees, the building ut quafi catena quaeda nidorum contexta ui- deatur. Plinius \ Turdi hyeme maxime in Germania cernuntur. [p. 141] Turdus primus. Secundus. Tertius. Primimt turdi genus Angli peculiariter nominabit a thrushe, & Germani {niji me fallant aucupes, qui me Jic uocare docueruni) eyn cram7nefuogeL Sectmdum genus Angit uocatit a throjfei aut a mauis, Germatii eyn droffel, aut eyn durjiel. Tertiu genus ab Anglis a uuyngthrushe, & a Germanis eyn uueingaerdsuoegel nuncupatur. Hic turdus utrinque iuxta oculos, & in pedlore & in ipfo alce flexu, intus & foris macidas habet latiufculas rubras. Huius nidum nunquam uidi: nec mirum, quum per ceflatem apud nos nufquam uideatur. primum genus non nif hyeme in Anglia cernitur, aut fi uideatur, rarum efi. Secundum genus per totum annum apparet maculofo ualde peflore, & catus fui gratia a multis in caueis alitur. Nidum intus ex luto aut lignorum cane liquore mixta, artificiofe leuigata, fons ex mufco in ramis arborum aut fruticum facit. DE VIREONE. XXayplou, uireo, Anglice a uuituuol, Germanice tDittDol/ ober et)u tpeibmaif/ ober et;n ferfenvife. Aristoteles l Vireo docilis, & ad uitae munia ingeniofus [p. 142] notatur, fed male uolat, nec grati coloris eft. Vireo^ totus uiridis ex obfcuro" eft, hyeme hic non uidetur, fed aeftiuo folftitio potiffimum uenit in confpeftum. Difcedit exortu arfturi fyderis, magnitudine turturis eft. ^ Hist. Nat. Lib. X. cap. xxiv. 2 Hist. An. Bk ix. 89. ^ Hist. An. Bk ix. 98. ^ These two words are not in Aristotle. being so continuous as to seem almost like a chain of nests woven together. Pliny. The Turdi are in winter chiefly seen in Germany. The first kind of Turdus Englishmen particularly name a Thrushe, and Germans (if the bird-catchers, who taught me so to call it, lead me not astray) eyn crammesvogel. The second kind the English call a Throssel or a Mavis, but the Germans say eyn drossel or eyn durstel. The third is named a Wyngthrushe by the English and eyn weingaerds- vogel by the Germans. This Turdus has broadish red spots on each side near the eyes, as well as on the breast, and also both inside and outside at the bend of the wing. But I have never seen its nest, nor is that wonderful, since it is nowhere to be seen with us throughout the summer. The first kind is not observed in England save in winter, or, if it be seen, it is unusual. The second kind, with a much spotted breast appears throughout the year, and by many is kept in cages for its song. It builds a nest, moreover, inwardly of mud or else of rotten wood tempered with moisture and smoothed skilfully, and outwardly of moss, upon the boughs of trees or shrubs. * Of the Vireo. XX(opLa)v, vireo, in English a witwol, in German eyn wit- wol or eyn weidwail, or eyn kersenrife. Aristotle. The Vireo is teachable, and is remarkable for its capacity for the duties of life ; but it flies badly and is not of a pleasing colourk The Vireo is wholly of a dusky green ; it is not seen in winter here, but comes chiefly in view about the summer solstice, it departs at the rise of the star Arcturus, and is of the size of the Turtur. 1 Cf. p. 86. Vtreoftem {quod fcio) in Anglia nunquam uidi^ fed in Germania fcepi/fime. turture paulo minor efl. Voeem fifidcE grandiufcul(E, quce infimam ca7itionis partem fiufimet, Jimilem emittit. Nidum in ramo quem in fumma arbore fiufpendit, in formam rotunda^n eonft7mit, 7ie CUI Ji07ni7iu7n aut feraru ad eum pateret aditus. DE VPVPA. eVoTT?, tipupa, A7tgliee a hotiupe, Ger7nanice ei)U ^oup/ ober e^n unbf)op)f. Aristoteles \ Vpupa potiffimum nidum e ftercore hominis facit. Mutat facie tempore aeftatis & hyemis, ficut & caeterarum quoque agreftium plurimae, [p. 143] Vpupa^ una in fuo genere non nidificat, fed fti- pites arborum fubiens, parit fine ullo ftramento, in cauis. Literatores plerig, 077i7ies Brita7t7iiei, 7ipupa7n ea77t 7i07ni7iant atmn, qua77i barbari ab alartmt firepitu, 7ia7t7iellinn 7iuncupa7it, & ipfi fua lingua lapuuinga77i uoeant. Veritm ifioru777 craffus error facile aictori- tate Plmifi de upupa ita fcribe7itis, co7ifutatur: Vpupa {mquit) obfcoena alias paftu auis, crifta uifenda plicatili, cotrahens eam, fubrigenscjj per longitudinem capitis. H(ec ille. Sed Gram7naticis 7iofi7''is hic error efi facile co7ido7ia7idus, 7iam 7iufqua77t i7i tota Brita7mia upupa {quod ego fcio') reperii'i potefi, apud Ger77ia7ios ta7ne7i frequentifiima. Ea efi 77tag7iitudine tu7Ei, alis per hiterualla fufcis, albis & 7iigris pe7i7iis difimPtis, crifla m capite ab ea parte rofiri, qua capiti coifwiittitur, ad extre77tu77i ufq-, occiput m Idgitudi7ie77i porrigitur, quain pro adfePlibus fuis aut coiitrahit, Angloru lapuuinga non effe upupam. 1 Hist. All. Bk IX. 88. 2 Hist. An. Bk vi. 4. ^ Hist. Nat, Lib. x. cap. xxix. I have never seen the Vireo in England, so far as I know, but very often when in Germany. It is a little smaller than the Turtur. It gives forth a note like that of the large pipe which plays the bass part of a song. This bird suspends its nest upon a branch at the top of a tree, and fashions it in rounded form, that it should not afford access to any man or beast. Of the Upupa. eTToyjr, upupa, in English a howpe, in German eyn houp or eyn widhopff. Aristotle. The Upupa builds its nest chiefly of human dung. It changes its appearance in the summer season and in winter, as very many other wild birds do. The Upupa only of its kind builds not a nest, but entering the trunks of trees lays eggs in cavities, without any litter. Nearly all British writers name that bird Upupa, which from the noise of its wings foreigners call Vannellus, though in their own tongue the former call it Lapwing. Yet their gross error may be easily refuted on the authority of Pliny, who thus writes of the Upupa. The Upupa (he says) is a bird filthy otherwise as to its food, but to be noticed for its folding crest, which it contracts and then erects again along its head. These are his very words. And yet our scholars may be well excused this their mistake, for nowhere in the whole of Britain is the Upupa to be found (so far as I know), though in Germany it is most plentiful. The bird is of the bigness of a Thrush, with wings barred here and there with brown, and marked with black and white feathers ; the crest extends from the part of the bill which joins the head to the extremity of the occiput, along the length, this it contracts I 76 upupa— UiPnatrix— Vultur aut dilatat^ ut equus aures arrigit aut demittit, tibijs eji ualde breuibus.^ alis obtufioribus& lente admodum uolat. [p. 144] DE VRINA TRICE. urinatrix, Angi, a douker, Germa. ei)n bucket. Aristoteles \ Alia degunt quidem in fluido, uiftum^J inde petunt, fed aerem no humore recipiunt, & foris parere folent. Complura huius generis funt, partim greffilia ut lutra, latax & crocodilus: partim uolucres ut mergi & urinatrices. Arifloteles urinatricis unum tantum genus eomme- morat, ego tamen tria urinatrieum genera uidi. Horum primum totum nigrum efl. & fi cirrum, que in eapite gerit, exceperis, mergo, quo tamen triplo minor efi: ccetera, quod ad corporis attinet effigie, non diffmile efi. & hoc genus nautce noflrates lounam nominant, alij doukeram. Secundum genus turdo non maius efi, anati colore & corporis effigie fiimile, et hoc Angli mediam urinatricem nuncupat. Tertium genus adeo nuper ab ouo exclufium refert anferculum, ut nifi rofirum huius paulo tenuius effiet, cegre alterum ab altero dif- [p. 145] cerneres. Non enim pennas, fed lanuginem quan- dam, earum loco obtinet. Degunt hcEc plerunque tria genera in aquis fiagnantibus, aut fluuifs non admodum rapidis, in quorum ripis arundines & carices nafcuntur. DE VVLTVRE. Tiiyp, uultur, Anglice a geir, Germanice ei)n geV)r. Aristoteles l Vultur nidificat in excelfiffimis rupibus: unde fit ut raro nidus & pulli cernantur. 1 Hist. An. Bk i. 6, somewhat freely rendered. 2 Hist. An. Bk vi. 35. or spreads again according as it is disposed, as a horse pricks or droops its ears. It has very short legs and rounded wings, while it flies somewhat slowly. Of the Urinatrix. Ko\v/ii/3i<;, urinatrix, in English a douker, in German eyn ducher. Aristotle. But other animals in truth live in the water and thence seek their food, yet they breathe air and not moisture, and they are wont to breed out of the water. Now there are many of this sort, in part going afoot, as are the Lutra, Latax, and Crocodilus ; and in part winged, as the Mergi and the Urinatrices. Aristotle makes mention only of one kind of Urinatrix, but I have observed three kinds of Urinatrices. Of these the first is wholly black, and, except for the tuft it bears upon its head, is not unlike the Mergus otherwise, so far as the outline of its body goes, though it is one-third less in size. This is the sort our sailors call the Loun, but others the Douker. The second kind, no bigger than a Thrush, is like a Duck in colour and in form of body; this the English call the middle Urinatrix. The third kind, when it is but newly hatched, recalls a Gosling, so that if its beak were not a little more slender you could scarce discern the one bird from the other. Eor it has no quills, but in place of these a sort of down. These three kinds for the most part live on stagnant waters or not very rapid rivers, on the banks of which grow reeds and sedges. Of the Vultur. vultur, in English a geir, in German eyn geyr. Aristotle. The Vulture nests in very lofty rocks, and thus it chances that the nest and young are rarely to be seen. T. 12 quocirca Herodotus Brifonis rhetoris pater, uul- tures ex diuerfo orbe nobis incognito aduolare putauit, argumeto quod nidum nemo uidiffet uulturis, & quod multi exercitum fequetes, repente appareant. Sed quanquam difficile nidum eius alitis uideris : tamen uifus aliquan- [p. 146] do efh. Pariunt uultures oua bina. Caetera, quae carne uefcuntur, non plus quam femel anno parere exploratum eft. Plinius \ Vulturum praeualent nigri, nidos nemo attigit, ideo etiam fuere, qui putarent ex aduerfo orbe aduolare falfo. Nidificant enim in excel- fiffimis rupibus. Foetus quidem faepe cernuntur fere bini. Vmbricius aurufpicu noftro aeuo peritiffimus, parere tradit tria, uno ex his reliqua oua niducjj luftrare, moxcjj abijcere. Triduo aut ante aut biduo uolare eos, ubi cadauera futura funt. Perpera Grammatiei qriidam imlture, gryphem nominant, 7Lnltnrem & gryphem inepte eonfimeientes. qnum gryps fit a gryphen, animal nt ereditnr nolatile & qiiadnLpes. Wherefore Herodotus, the father of the rhetorician Briso, thought that Vultures winged it from some other world unknown to us, his argument being that nobody had ever seen a Vulture’s nest, although a multitude at once come into sight when following an army. And yet, however difficult it be to see the nest of this bird, still it has been seen at certain times. Vultures lay two eggs each. Resides it is a well-known fact that animals which feed on flesh do not breed more than once a year. Pliny. Of Vultures the black are most plentiful. No one has ever reached their nests and therefore there have been some who erroneously thought that they flew hither from another world. They really nest in very lofty rocks. Indeed the offspring, generally twins, are often seen. Umbricius, the most skilful augur of our age, asserts that they lay three eggs, with one of which they cleanse the others and purify the nest, and afterwards throw it away. And that they fly three or two days beforehand to a place where carcases are likely to be found. Quite wrongly certain scholars call the Vulture Gryps, confounding foolishly the Vulture and the Gryps, since the Gryps is a Gryphon, or an animal believed to be both winged and quadruped. [p-147] AVIVM LOCI COMMVNES ex Ariftotele. 0/ Pliiimm, Ariftotele, Ariftophane mit queme{iq\ aliimt idoiieit7n fcriptorem te legere contingat, locos huinfmodi cdmunes, quales exempli tantii gratia fubijciam, in procindltc, libro infcriptos chartaceo habere expedit, ut ad eos aues omnes, de qtiibus apud ijios legis, certo referas, quod fi feceris, 710 dubito quin in aum cogititione multui7t breid fis profedliirus. Appendices habe7ites. Olor, anfer, anas, gallinaceus, perdix, ciconia, afca- laphus, tarda, nodlua, paffer. higluuies habentes. Gallinaceus, palumbes, perdix & columbus. Gulas totas a77tplas habentes. Anfer, anas, gatna, cataradla, & tarda. Gregales aues. Olor, a7ifer mmor, grus, & platea. F7ntgib2Ls 7iitHtantes. Pahmibes, columbus, turt7ir, & idnago. [p. 148] Lacus frequentantes. Ardeola, albardeola, ciconia, gauia cineida, iunco, cinclus, trynga, calidris, & alcedones. Mare frequentafites. Alcedo, car ullis, gaUia alba, fulica, meigus, mipex & cataxadla. COMMON PLACES, REFERRING TO BIRDS, FROM ARISTOTLE. IF it should happen that you read Pliny, Aristotle, Aristophanes, or any other suitable writer, it is fitting to have ready for use such Common Places of this kind as I will add for the sake of example only, written in a note-book, that you may with certainty refer to all those birds, of which you read in their pages. And if you do this, I doubt not that in a short time you will make great progress in the knowledge of birds. Those having appendices^. Olor, anser, anas, gallinaceus, perdix, ciconia, ascalaphus, tarda, noctua, passer. Those having craws. Gallinaceus, palumbes, perdix, and columbus. Those having wide gullets. Anser, anas, gavia, cataracta, and tarda. Gregarious birds. Olor, the smaller anser, grus, and platea. Those living on crops. Palumbes, columbus, turtur, and vinago. Those freqtwnting lakes. Ardeola, albardeola, ciconia, the grey gavia, junco, cinclus, trynga, calidris, and alcedones. Those frequenting the sea. Alcedo, carulus^, the white gavia, fulica, mergus, rupex^, and cataracta. ^ That is ccBca or blind-guts. 2 Kvavos. ^ Perhaps ;^apaSp6ds‘. Anmes & lacus frequentantes. Olor, anas, phalaris, tcrinatrix, bofca, coriius palmipes, ttterque anfer, uulpanfer, capella, penelops, aqidla marina. Spinas appetentes. Spimts, carduelis, & auriidttis. Ctdicihus uidlitantes. Pici Martij, galgtdus, culicilega. Vermibus aut ex toto aut magna ex parte uidlitantes. Fringilla, paffer, rubetra, luteola, & pari omnes, ficedida, atricapilla, 7'ubictlla, rubecida, fyluia, ciLruca, afylus, florus, moiitifringilla, regidus & frugilega. Plures locos ctcique licebit huius modi excogitare. Common places Those frequenting rivers and lakes. Olor, anas, phalaris, urinatrix, bosca, the web-footed corvus, either kind of anser, vulpanser, capella, penelops, the sea aquila. Those feeding on thistles. Spinus, carduelis, and aurivittis. Those feeding on insects. Pici martii, galgulus, culicilega. Those feeding on worms., either zvholly, or for the most part. Fringilla, passer, rubetra, luteola, and all the pari, ficedula, atricapilla, rubicilla, rubecula, sylvia, curuca, asylus, florus, montifringilla, regulus, and frugilega. Any one may devise more Places of this sort. [p. ,49] PERORATIO AD LECTOREM. Non deerunt forfan, qui mihi hoc uicio uerfuri funt, quod libellus ifhe meus coniedturarum multo plus quam certarum ad- fertionum in fe contineat: quibus refpondeo, in re ardua, & nondum fatis explorata mihi con- fultius & modeftius uideri, h^fitanter & modefte coniedtando ueftigare, & ita inquirere, quam temere & impudenter de rebus incompertis pro- nunciare. Quod autem de moribus & medicinis auium nihil hic fcripferim, in caufa fuerunt, temporis anni infelicitas, & anguftia (breuiori enim fpacio quam duobus menfibus totus liber [p. 150] confcriptus eft) & pecuniae copia minor, quam quae huiufmodi negocio abfoluendo fufficeret. Nam quis fine magna pecuniae ui in longinquas regiones proficifci poteft, peregrinarum auium formas & mores contemplaturus, & illic diu ea de caufa manfurus ? Quis familia aut uoca- tione fua, aut alijs negocijs foras prodire prohibitus, fine maximis impends omnia auium genera ab aucupibus ad fe ex uarijs mudi plagis allata, curare poterit ? et ia allata, quo mores ad plenum perueftiget, in uiuarijs & caueis fine maximis fumptibus alere quis sufficiet ? Hoc PERORATION TO THE READER. HERE perhaps will not be wanting those who will attribute this to me as a fault, that this little book of mine contains within it many more conjectures than sure statements : to whom I reply, that it seemed to me much more prudent and becoming on a subject that is difficult and not yet sufficiently explored to tread doubtingly and modestly by conjecture, and so to enquire, than to pronounce rashly and immodestly on things undetermined. Moreover that I have written nothing here of the habits and medicinal nature of birds, I have for reasons the unsuitability of the time of year and its brief span (for the whole book was written in a space of less than two months) and a supply of money too slender to suffice for the perfection of a work of that kind. For who without great command of money can set off for distant regions, to observe the forms and habits of foreign birds, and there to stay a long time for that purpose ? Who, hindered by his household or his calling or other business from going abroad could without vast expense give heed to all the kinds of birds brought to him by fowlers from the various quarters of the world ? and when brought, who would be capable without vast expense of keeping them in vivaria and cages, that he might investigate their habits ‘ to the full ? Alexander ille omnium ethnicorum regum potentia, bellica gloria, & literarum ftudio maximus & nobiliffimus fecu animo perpendens, [p-i5d Ariftotelem iam de animalibus fcripturu, quem priuatis fumptibus negocium illud abfoluere non potuiffe cognouerat, ad conducendos aucupes, & uenatores, & ad alenda in uiuarijs animalia iam capta, 480 milibus coronatorum donauit, & ita inftruxit. Talis fi hodie alicubi Alexander ex- ifteret, non dubitarem quin nouus nobis Arifto- teles alicunde renafceretur, qui prioris illius Ariftotelis animalia omnia, paucis exceptis, no folum nobis cum moribus medicis fuis facultatibus, & huius teporis nominibus exhiberet, fed & multa plura animalia qua prior, & humano generi non minus utilia nos doceret. Quod igitur Ariftoteles de tam multis animantibus [p. 152] ta foeliciter fcripferit, Alexadri potius liberali- tati quam Ariftotel. diligenti^ tribuendum erat: quamuis et ea fummopere laudada erat. Nam fi Alexandri munificentia Ariftoteli animalia illa fpedtanda 116 exhibuiffet, hiftoriam animalium nobis tam abfolutam nunquam aedidiffet. Mirari igitur defmant fcriptorum huius temporis ociofi cefores, frigidius, indoblius, & minori cum dili- getia ftirpium, auium, pifcium & quadrupedum hiftorias hac aetate cofcribi, quam apud feculum prius tra6f;abantur. Quum hodie quicquid pre- clari in lucem emittitur, priuatis tenuioris fortunae ftudioforu uirorum fumptibus & typographo- rum impenfis edatur. Sed ad te iam redeo, candidiffime leblor, quem etiam atq^ etiam ob- [p- i53]teftor, ut fi qua tibi fefe peregrina facie offerat The well-known Alexander, the greatest and most renowned of all kings of the nations in power, warlike glory, and zeal for learning, weighing this in his mind, presented Aristotle with 480,000 crowns, when he was about to write on animals, since he knew that the philosopher could not carry out that task with his private means, for the purpose of hiring fowlers and hunters, and for keeping in vivaria the animals which had been already caught, and provided to that end. If such an Alexander existed anywhere to-day, I should not doubt that a new Aristotle would be born again for us from somewhere, who not only would display to us all the animals, with few exceptions, of that former Aristotle, with their habits, their medicinal properties, and their latter-day names, but would inform us of many more animals than the former, and those not less useful to the human race. That Aristotle therefore wrote so happily about so many living creatures is to be put down rather to the liberality of Alexander than to the diligence of Aristotle : though that too must be praised without stint. For if the bounty of Alexander had not supplied to Aristotle those animals to be examined, he never would have published so complete a History of Animals for us. Therefore let the ease-loving critics of the present day cease to wonder that the histories of plants, birds, fishes, and quadrupeds are written in this age with less spirit, less learning, and less diligence than that with which they were treated in a former age. To-day whatever of value is brought to light is published at the private expense of very zealous men of slender fortunes and printers. But now I return to you, most ingenuous reader, and beseech you once and again that, if any bird of foreign aspect meet auis, paucis mihi illam, addito nomine gentis tuae, depingere non dedigneris, & mihi & omnium bonaru literarum ftudiofis fcies te magnopere gratificaturum, nam nec fa6li in fecunda huius libri editione ero immemor, nec quicqua, quod ad hoc difciplinae genus pertinet, mihi exploratum, te celabo. Vale. Coloniae Calend. Martijs. your eye, you will not disdain to depict it for me in a few words, with the addition of the name of your family, and you will know that you will greatly gratify both me and those who are zealous of all good learning, for I shall be neither unmindful of the act in a second edition of this book, nor conceal from you anything, which pertains to this kind of teaching, and is found out by me. Farewell. At Cullen. P March. [p-154] AABEPTOS 'O TEAPIETS T(p T7]<^ ^if^Xov (T7rovBa[(p dvayvcocFTj] ev nTparreiv. \doiici\a ei iOeXei^ irrrjv eiSevat co (f)L\6fiov(T€ ToOto iTOiTj/uia jSpa'^v dvdyvcocrov dye. OvBel<i ear dfcpc^d)<; irepl tovtcov ypd^jrev larpMV, flcrre /5Xe7r6t9 Tp 8' iv irdvra ypacf^evra /StySX,«. ToO ovv (TTrovSaiov T^ovpvppov tov ttovov ovtov ^iTe\a^ev: tovtov real diroXave Ka\d)<^. "AWo. pbavOavepuev irrpvMv dvayvcDard BouXei? Tovpvppov rpv /3l/3\ov dtveeo. Toia yap ovic larpMV p^pSel^} irpXv eypd'yjraTO tt/ivtcov, Ez/ ^ij3\i(p TovTCp, irola SoOevra /SXeTre^?. Et dp' d^pM^ T6 T?79 ypa(f)6eLap<; dirdXaveLv Bt^Xou dvSdvei, /civee Sevpo irohov. Aliud eiufdem ad candidum ledtorem. Accipe quee dodti medici tibi cura parauit [P- 155] Ttirneri^ notas quifquis auebis attes. Has tibi tarn uarijs manus ingeniofa figuris Exprefit, noffe ut quamlibet inde queas. Ne quoque non p off es has pernouiffe, Latinas, Anglas, Teutonicas, Argolicasf, facit. Liber ad ledlorem. Quifq'ins anes uarias de nomine def figuris Noffe cupis lector, me lege, dodtus eris. Nec dabo, crede mihi, tibi munei^a paima laboris: Nam uolucrum res efl maxima feire genus. Ad Lectorem Crebro Grdniatici Jitc hceret, Jiat Kco(j)d irpoacoira, Nec facit officio jlidtida titrba fatis. Hic ipfos medicos errare miferrima res eft, Quos decet heee animis nota tenere fids. Sen Maro fit pueris, feu Nafo poeta legendus, Sen fnerint queeuis feripta legenda tibi: Difpeream, fi non midto tibi maximns error Occnrret pajjim, ni bene noris anes. Antornm nimiam placet hand pofidffe caternam. Vt tibi, qnce teneo, nofira probare qneam. Plinius hic ille efi, & Arifioteles, reliqidg,. Quotquot de uolucrum nos ratione docent. Hoc fcio, Turnert miraberis ipfe laborem, Doclriiiam, fummam cum pietate fidem. ASqXov. En tibi, quos dodli dedit hic pia cura labores Tumeri medici, candide lePlor habe. Inuenies nimium quee te didiciffe iuuabit. Hinc uenient frudius in tua uota boni. [p- 156] FINIS. EXCERPTA EX OPERE lOANNIS CAII BRITANNI DE RARIORUM ANIMALIUM ATQUE STIRPIUM HISTORIA, fol. 17—23. De Haliaeto. De Aulbus. T T ALIAETOS, id genus aquilse eft, quod ex mari -L J- lacubusq^ predam qu(^rit, vnde nomen inuenit. Is magnitudine Milui eft, capite albis & fufcis distin(5lo [f. 17 b] lineis, vt melino: rofhro aquilino: oculis in medio nigris, in ambitu aureis: lingua fere humana, nifi quod ad radicem vtrinq^ habet appendicem : colore per fumma afturis, per ima albo: gutture maculis notato ruffis vt & ventre, pedlore medio pure candido: crure craffo & fquamofo: pede vncungui & ceruleo: digitis quatuor, per fuperna ad dimidiam longitudinem etiam fquamofis, ad reliquam incifis, per inferna afperis & aculeatis tenacitatis caufa: & his tam validis, vt flexos vix vlla vi extendas. Predator is eft pifcium, difcufsis decidentis corporis impetu aquis, ex eisque viuit. Et quamuis ex pifce viuat, fidipes tamen eft vtroque pede, non altero palmipes, vt vulgus putat. Giraldus Cambrenfis libro de Topographia Hiberniae, vbi de auibus biformibus agit, hunc Aurifrifm vocat: & altero pede aperto & vnguibus armato effe, altero claufo cum vulgo fcribit. Supra magnitudinem corporis alae longitudo eft, quae ad pedes Romanos duos & digitos vndecim extenditur. Inoleuit opinio iftic apud noftrum vulgus in Britannia, eam ineffe vim naturalem huic aui, vt quem confpexerit pifcem, eum fe quam mox refupinare & conuertere, atque ad fum- EXTRACTS FROM THE WORK OF JOHN CAIUS ‘DE RARIORUM ANIMALIUM ATQUE STIRPIUM HISTORIA’ (1570). Of tfie Sea Eagle. HE Haliaetos is that kind of Eagle, which seeks its prey i from the sea and lakes, whence it takes its name. It is of the size of a Kite, having the head marked with white and dusky lines, as in a badger; an Eagle’s beak; eyes black in the middle, golden in the outer circle ; a tongue almost like that of man, except that at the root it has an appendage on either side; the colour above that of a Goshawk, white below; the throat marked with rufous spots, as is the belly; the middle of the breast pure white; the legs thick and scaly; the foot with curved claws and blue; four toes scaly above for quite half of their length, fissured for the rest, rough on the lower part and sharp for a firm hold; and these so strong that you can scarcely straighten them by any force when bent This bird is a preyer upon fishes, the water being cleft by the shock of its body as it plunges, and on them it lives. And though it lives on fishes, yet it is cloven on each foot, not webbed on one as the vulgar think. Giraldus Cambrensis in his book on the Topography of Ireland, when he treats of unequally formed birds, calls this the Aurifrisius'; and writes in common with the vulgar that it has one foot free-toed and armed with claws, the other closed (with webs). The length of the wing surpasses that of the body, for it extends to two Roman feet and eleven inches. In this affair an opinion has grown up among our common people in Britain, that such a natural power exists in this bird that any fish which it sees turns upwards on its back as soon as possible and rises to the surface ^ Aurifrisius must be the Latinized form of the old French name ‘Orfraie’—which, like Osprey, is a corruption of Ossifraga. T. 13 mam aquam afcendere, in eaque fluitare vt fopitum, quo facilior preda fit volanti. Ideoq, eius adeps stu- diofius afferuatur a noftris pifcatoribus, quod eandem vim habere creditur. Frequentes funt apud nos in maritimis locis & Vedii infula. Noftri an Ofprey vocant. Moribus placidus eft & tradlabilis, & famis [f. 18] patientifsimus. Vixit enim feptem dies apud me fine cibo, & in alta quiete : nifi fi hoc non mos fecit fed fames, quse omnia domat. Carnem oblatam recufauit: pifcem non obtuli, quod eum ex hoc viuere didici. Caro illi nigra eft. De anfere Brendmo. Anfer Brendinus, auis eft marina, palmipes, figura anferis, fed magnitudine paulo infra, capite albo exiguo & curto, fed roftro nigro, a quo linea nigra ad oculum vtrumque ducitur, collo fufco, a pedlore ad caudam ex dimidio corpore inferiori albo, coxendice murino (vt eft Columbae vulgaris color aut gruis) ex fuperiori, ad collum fufco, vt & ad caudam medio inter vtrumq^ murino : alis item murinis, cum. cauda longitudine paribus, fed pennis ad extremum obfuf- catis. Cauda nigra eft ex albo enata, pede nigro & palmato. Gregalis auis eft & garrula. Ex pifce viuit, frequens apud nos per littora in Britannia. Vulgus Britannorum quod ad littus habitat a coloris varietate a Brendgofe nominat. Ornithopolse Lon- dinenfes Bernaclum vocant, cum dicendum putem Berndclacum feu Brendclacum, quod antiqui Britanni atque item Scoti, anferes marinos, paluftres & la- cuftres omnes Clakes dicebant, cum tamen hodie corrupte dicimus Fenlakes & Fenlagges, cum dicendum fuit Fenclakes. Varium item colorem, Brend, feu per metathefim Bernd ijdem appellabant. Vnde [f. i8b] bernded feu brended id animal dicitur, quod in colore murino variegatum eft albo, vt eft hic anfer. Non eft of the water, and therein floats as if stunned, in order that it may more readily become a prey to the winged creature. And therefore is its fat preserved with greater keenness by our fishermen because it is believed to have the same virtue. They are abundant with us on sea-coasts and in the Isle of Wight. Our people call it an Osprey. In its habits it is quiet and amenable, and most patient of hunger. For it has lived with me for seven days without food, in deep repose; unless indeed it was not habit that caused this, but hunger, which tames all things. It refused flesh when offered to it; I did not offer fish, because I understood that it lived on it. Its flesh is dark. Of the Brent Goose. The Brent Goose is a web-footed sea-bird, of the appearance of a Goose, but a little less in size, with the head small and short and white, but the beak black, from which a black line reaches to either eye ; the neck dusky, the lower half of the body from the breast to the tail white; the flank mouse- coloured above (like the colour of a common Pigeon or Crane), dusky towards the neck, and also the intermediate parts towards the tail mouse-coloured; the wings also mouse- coloured, equal in length to the tail, but with the feathers darkened at the tip. The tail is black from a white base, the foot black and webbed. It is a gregarious and noisy bird. It lives on fish, and is common with us in Britain about the coasts. The common people of the Britons who live on the coast, name it a Brendgose from the varied nature of its colouring. The London bird-dealers call it Bernacle, yet I should think that it ought to be named Berndclac or Brendclac, because the Britons of old, as also the Scots, called all the Geese whether of the sea, marshes or lakes “ Clakes,” though at the present day we corruptly say Fen- lakes and Fenlagges k when we should say Fenclakes. The same people, moreover, call anything variegated Brend or by metathesis Bernd. Whence an animal is said to be bernded or brended which is variegated with white upon a mouse-coloured ground k like this Goose. It is not, there- 1 According to this notion ‘ Grey-Lag’ would be for ‘ Grey-Clak.’ 2 Possibly, then, ‘Bergander’ is for ‘ Bernd-gander.’ 13—2 Anfer ergo Scotorum Baffanus anfer, qui in Baffe Scotorum Bajarius. Infula nidum ponit atq oua, a qua nomen habet. In hanc infula rupem exifhentem, nec in fummo quantam Miluus oberret (vt Poeta dixit) fed exiguam, venturi ftato anni tempore anferes, quo prius fpeculatu, qua obferuatione premifsis nuntijs vtantur quam ingrediuntur : quo anni tempore hoc faciant, qua folitudine infulae, concludentibus fe incolis ad aliquot dies, donec fe firmauerint anferes, ne abigant, quanta multitudine atq denfitate inuolent, fic vt in ferenitate folem adimant, quot pifces afferant, quot oua pariant, & quantos frudtus in annos ex eis anferumq plumis atq oleo percipiant infulani (nam Pupino- rum pinguedinem habent atq guftu) longum effet recenfere. De Anate Indica. Eft apud nos ex India anas, eadem plane corporis figura, eodem roftro & pede quo vulgaris, fed ex dimidio maior ea & grauior. Caput illi rubefcit vt fanguis, & bona pars coniundli colli a pofheriore parte. Id totum callofa caro eft, & incifuris difhindla: quaq ad nares finit, carunculam demittit a reliqua carne figura feparatam, qualis cygnis eft, roftro coniundlam. Nudum plumis caput eft, & ea quoque colli pars quae rubefcit, nifi quod in fummo capite crifta eft plumea atque candida, per totam capitis longitudinem pro- [f. 19] tenfa: quam, cum excandefcit, erigit. Sub oculis ad roftri initium per inferna, inordinatae maculae nigrae carni funt indudlae : & vna atq altera a fummo oculo ad fuperna eleuatae. Oculus flauefcit, feparatus a reliquo capite circulo nigro. Sub extremo oculo in auerfum macula eft fingularis, feparata a ceteris. Roftrum totum eft coeruleum, nifi quod in extremo macula nigrefcit vna. Pluma illi per totum colli proceffum reliquum, alba. Qua corpori collum iugi- tur, circulus eft plumeus niger, rara pluma alba, ma- culofus & in^qualis, per ima anguftior, per fumma latior. Poft eum per totum imum ventrem pluma fore, the Bass Goose of the Scots, which has its nest and eggs on the Bass, a Scottish Isle, and thence takes its name. Now when at a certain season of the year the Geese are about to return to this precipitous island rock— not so big on the top as a Kite could hover over (as the Poet has said), but very small—it would be too long to recount what spying, what circumspection (scouts having been sent ahead) they use before they alight: at what time of year they do this, the solitary state of the isle, when the inhabitants shut themselves up for several days, until the Geese have settled down, lest they should drive them off, in what numbers and in what a throng they fly to it, so that in clear weather they obscure the sun, how many fishes they bring home, how many eggs they lay, and what profit the dwellers in the isle make annually from the feathers and the oil of these Geese (for they possess the fatness and the taste of Pupins). Of the Indian Duck. There is among us, a Duck from India, with exactly the same form of body, the same beak and foot as the common bird, but bigger by half and heavier. Its head is red as blood, as is a good part of the adjoining neck behind. The whole of this is callous flesh and marked with fissures: and where it ends at the nostrils it makes a caruncle like that in Swans, separated in form from the rest of the flesh, which joins the beak. The head and red part of the neck are devoid of feathers, save that on the top of the head is a white feathery crest, extending over the whole length of the head; and this the bird erects, when it is excited. Under the eyes to the beginning of the beak at its lower part irregular black spots are arranged on the flesh: and one or two reach upward from the top of the eye to the parts above. The eye is yellowish, being separated by a black ring from the rest of the head. Close behind the eye is a solitary mark, apart from the rest. The whole beak is blue save that at the tip one spot shews black. The plumage over all the rest of the neck is white. Where the neck joins the body, there is a ring of black feathers spotted and irregular—with an occasional white one—narrower below, broader above. Behind this the plumage is white over the whole of the belly below: [f. 19 b] alba eft: per fummum corpus, fufca, fed ab circulo illo nigro pluma alba in fummo diuifa. Extremae alae atque cauda cum fplendore virefcunt, vt Cantharides. Tibiarum cutis fufca efh, incifuris lenibus per circuitus du6ta. Membrana per interualla digitorum pedis pallefcit magis, vna atque altera refperfa macula fufca, incerta lege difpofita, nifi in interuallo fmiftri pedis, vbi fex per digiti extremi longitudine difponuntur. Tardo gradu incedit propter corporis grauitatem. Vox illi non qualis ceteris anatibus, fed rauca, qualis faucibus humanis catarrho obfefsis. Mas maior eft quam foemina. Ea fimilis mari eft, nifi quod non ita variegato corporis colore eft. Viuit ex coenofis aquis, & alijs quibus cetera vulgaris anas gaudet. De Anate Dircica fine Indica altera. Anati quidem fimilis eft quae Turcica fiue Indica dicitur, fed quantitate & magnitudine corporis anfe- rem fere diceres. Tota eft candida, nifi quod roftrum, tibiae, atque pedes rubent, genaeq item callofa carne, & roftri tuber fupra nares. Caro illi dulcis eft, & vox fibilus. Sunt eius generis quadam, colore albo & nigro variegatae. In aqua viuit, locisq gaudet coenofis vt ceterae anates. De Pica marina. Pica marina (vt noftrum vulgus nominat) paulo maior eft terreftri, coloris quidem varietate in corpore fimilis, fed colore pedis, digitorum numero, incifuris, cauda atque roftro admodum difsimilis. Nam pes rubet, & digito pofteriori deftituitur, nec incifuras habet is & tibia, fed imprefsiones quafda, pifcium fquamis quam fimillimas. Eiffus eft, fed ita in digitis vtrinq luxuriat cutis, quemadmodu in fulicis pene, vt ad natandu quoque pes fadlus videatur. Auis eft Amphibios. Caudam curtam habet, roftrum longum atq tenue, perpendiculariter latum, non teres, colore and dusky over the upper surface of the body, but the white feathering above is divided by the black ring. The ends of the wings and the tail have a greenish gloss as in Cantharides. The skin of the legs is dusky, marked all round with slight fissures. The web in the spaces between the toes is paler, marked now and again with a dusky spot, arranged in no precise plan, except in those of the left foot, where six are distributed over the length of the outer toe. The bird moves with slow step on account of the weight of its body. Its voice is not like that of other Ducks, but hoarse; such (as comes) from the human throat when attacked by a catarrh. The male is larger than the female. She is like the male, save that she has not so varied a colouring of body. The bird gets its living from muddy waters, and those others wherein the other common Duck delights. Of the Turkish or Second Indian Duck. That which is called the Turkish or Indian is like a Duck, but (judging) from the bulk and bigness of its body you would almost call it a Goose. It is entirely white, except that the beak, legs and feet are red, while the cheeks also have callous skin, and there is a protuberance on the beak above the nostrils. Its flesh is sweet, and its voice whistling. There are some of this kind variegated with black and white. It lives upon the water, and delights in muddy places, as do other Ducks. Of the Sea Pie. The Sea Pie (as our common people call it) is a little larger than the land Pie, yet like it in the varied colour of its body, while very dissimilar in the colour of the foot, the number of toes, their scutellations, the tail and the beak. For the foot is red and lacks a hind toe, nor has that member or the tibia scutellations, but merely marks, as like as may be to the scales of fishes. It is cloven-footed, but there is such an extent of skin on the toes on each side—almost as much as in Coots—that the foot would even seem to be formed for swimming. It is an amphibious bird. It has a short tail, a beak long and thin, vertically broad, not smooth, in colour in fummo ad caput rubrum, per reliquum pallidum, nec eft in fine acutum, fed obtufum id. In menfa grata auis eft. De gallina Getida domeflica. Gallina Getula domeftica, paulo minor noftra eft, [f. 20] colore in fupernis obfcure ruffa, in infernis pallida, pluma capitis incompofita & eredla, crifta ferrata, humili, fimplici, carnea: gutturofa magis perpetuo, quam noftrae cum glociunt: tibijs pedibusque plumo- fis, maxime per exteriora & pofteriora vt columbis, ne per interiores plumas greffus impedirentur: cetera vt vulgaris. De Meleagride. Meleagris pulcherrima auis eft, magnitudine corporis, figura, roftro, & pede Phafiano fimilis : vertice corneo, in apicem corneum a pofteriori parte pre- cipitem, in anteriori leniter acclinem eleuato, armatus. Eum natura voluiffe videtur inferiori capitis parti tribus veluti lacinijs fe promittentibus committere atque deligare: inter oculum & aurem vtrinque vna, & in fronte media item vna: omnibus eiufdem cum vertice coloris: ita vt infideat capiti eo modo, quo ducalis pileus illuftrifsimo duci Veneto, fi quod iam aduerfum eft, auerfum fieret. Rugofus is eft: inferius, per circuitum : qua fe attolit, in diredlum. In fummo collo ad occipitium nafcuntur ere6li quidam atque nigri pili (non plumae) in contrarium verfi. Oculi toti nigri, aeque & in orbem palpebrae atq^ cilia, fi maculam in fumma & pofteriori parte fupercilij vtri- ufque demas. Imum caput per longitudinem vtrinque caro quadam callofa colore fanguineo occupat, quae ne propendeat veluti Galli gallinacei paleafi vt [f. 20 b] replicaretur natura voluit, & auerfo du6lu in duos proceffus acutos a capite liberos finiret. Ex hac carne attollunt fe vtrinque carunculae, quibus nares in ambitu veftiuntur, & caput in anteriori parte a cqtero roftro pallido feparatur. Harii ad roftrum margines inferiores, replicantur etiam leuiter fub vtroque nare. ^ Possibly ‘palea’ is a misprint for ‘galea,’ comb. red on the top near the head, pale on the remainder, nor is it sharp at the end, but blunt. It is an acceptable bird for the table. Of the domestic Getulian Hen. The domestic Getulian Hen, is a little smaller than our own, in colour dull rufous above, pale below, with an erect crest of disintegrated feathers on the head, a serrated comb, low, simple and fleshy: more continuously noisy than ours are, when they cluck: with the legs and feet feathered, for the most part outwardly and behind as in Doves, that the progress should not be hindered by feathers on the inside, otherwise it is like the common kind. Of the Meleagris. The Meleagris is a very beautiful bird, like to a Pheasant in bigness of body, form, beak and foot: provided with a horny poll rising to an abrupt horny peak at the back, which slopes down gently in front. Nature seems to have designed to join and bind this to the lower part of the head by three hanging lappets as it were; one on each side between the eye and the ear, and also one on the middle of the forehead, all of the same colour as the poll, so that it sits on the head in the same way that the ducal cap does on that of the most noble Duke of Venice, if that part which is usually in front be turned behind. It is wrinkled round about below, but vertically where it rises above. From the top of the neck to the occiput spring certain erect black bristles (not feathers), turned backwards. The eyes are wholly black, and equally so are the eyelids and eyelashes around them, if you except a mark on the top and back of each eyebrow. A kind of callous flesh of a blood-red colour covers the lower part of the head along its length; nature has designed that it should be folded, and should not hang forward like the wattle of the Fowl, and being led backward end in two acute processes free from the head. PTom this flesh rise on either side caruncles, by which the nostrils are clothed round about, and by which the head is divided in front from the rest of the pale-coloured beak. The lower edges of these by the beak are also folded slightly under each nostril. What intervenes Quod inter verticem & carnem eft a dextra & finiftra parte, album deplume eft, leui coeruleo mixtum. Color verticis atque apicis, idem prorfus eft cu colore cladlyli. Tibiae nigrae funt, & in anteriori parte, fqua- mofa incifura duplici notatae: in pofteriori nulla, fed leues, & veluti pundlis quibufdam fui coloris refperfae. Color illi fub faucibus exquifite eft purpureus: in collo obfcure purpureus : in cqtero corpore per fumma contuenti, qualis confurgit fi album & nigrum polli- nem vtcunque tenuiter tritum, colori fufco rarius afpergas, nec tamen commifceas. Tali colori maculae albae ouales aut rotundae per totum corpus ineffe vifuntur, per fumma minores, per ima maiores, com- prehenfae interuallis linearum (vt apparet in plumarum compofitione naturali) quae fe mutuo inter- fecant obliquo hinc inde du6lu, per fumma tantum corporis, non item per ima. Id non ex toto corpore folum deprehendes, fed ex fingulis auulfis plumis. Superiores enim, obliquis lineis fe mutuo interfecan- tibus, aut, fi mauis, orbiculis quibufdam ex albo & nigro (vt dixi) polline confedlis, & per extremitates coniundlis, vt in fauis aut rhetibus, maculas ouales aut [f. 21] rotundas albas in fpacijs fufcis comprehendunt: inferiores non item. Vtreq, tamen fimili lege pofitae funt. Nam in alijs plumis, ordine ita iunclae funt, vt fere triangulos acutos faciant: in alijs, vt oualem figura reprqfentent. Huius generis ordines tres aut quatuor in fingulis fuis plumis funt, ita vt minores in maioru complexu reponantur. In extremis alis & in cauda, redlis lineis ^quidiftantibus procedunt per longitudinem maculae. Inter gallum & gallinam vix difcernes, tanta eft fimilitudo, nifi quod gallina caput totum nigrum eft. Vox illi eft diuifus fibilus, non fonorior, non maior voce coturnicis, fed fimilior voci perdicis, nifi quod fubmifsior ea eft, nec ita clara. Curfu velox eft. De Morinello. Morinellus, auis nobis cum Morinis communis, ftulta admodum eft, fed in cibis delicata, eoque apud between the poll and the flesh on the right and left is white and unfeathered, mixed with light blue. The colour of the poll and peak of the head is exactly the same as that of the toes. The legs are black, marked in front with a double scaly fissure, on the back with none, but smooth, and sprinkled as it were with some spots, of a peculiar colour. The colour below the jaws is exquisite purple ; on the neck dark purple ; on the rest of the body, if you look from above, it stands out as if you sprinkled black and white flour, ground very fine with dusky colour at intervals, and yet did not mix them up. On such a ground oval or round white spots seem to be imposed throughout the whole body, smaller above and larger below, arranged in lines at intervals (as appears in the natural structure of feathers) which cut one another here and there in reciprocal oblique arrangement, only on the top of the body, however, and not below. This you will observe not only from the body as a whole, but from individual feathers if plucked out. For the upper feathers, with their oblique lines cutting one another reciprocally, or, if you will it, with certain rounds composed of black and white flour (as I have said), and meeting towards the tips, as in honey-combs or nets, enclose oval or round white spots within dusky spaces: but the lower do not. Both, however, are arranged by a similar law, for on some feathers they are so joined in rows as to almost make acute triangles ; in others so as to present an oval form. Of this kind there are three or four rows on each feather, so that the smaller are contained in the compass of the larger. At the tips of the wings and on the tail, spots lie along the length in equidistant straight lines. You can hardly distinguish between the cock and the hen, so great is the likeness, save that the head of the hen is wholly black. The voice is a shrill double cry, not more sonorous or louder than that of the Quail,but like that of the Partridge, except that the latter is lower, and not so clear. In running it is swift. Of the Morinellus. The Morinellus, a bird common to us and the Morini k is very foolish, but delicate to eat, and on that account is a ^ The people of a district in Northern France. nos in fummis delitijs atque pretio eft. Imitatrix auis eft. Ideo, vt Scops & Otus faltandi imitatione, ita hqc no6tu ad lumen candelae pro capientis geftu capitur. Nam fi is expandit brachium, extendit & illa alam : fi is tibiam, & illa itidem. Breuiter quic- quid gerit auceps, idem facit & ales. Ita humanis geftibus intenta auis, ab aucipe decipitur, & rhete obuelatur. Auis parua eft, magnitudine Sturni, tribus tantum digitis anterioribus, pofheriori nullo, vertice nigro, genis candidis, coturnicis fere colore, fi cinericei [f. 21 b] parum admifceas, potifsimum circa collum. Mori- nellum voco duplici de caufa, & quod auis efh apud Morinos frequetifsima, & quod auis ftolida eft, quae ftultitia gr^cis /xcopor?;? dicitur. Eam ob rem noftri etiam Doterellii vocant, quafi ftultitia delirantem dicant. De Piiphino fine Pupino. Eft auis qu(^dam marina noftras, parui anatis (quam ^ocFicaha Gr^ci vocant) magnitudine & figura corporis, pedibus palmatis & rubefcentibus, ad pofte- riora magis pofitis quam ceteris palmipedibus exceptis pygofcelibus: roftro tenuiore magis latitudine fe demittente, quam longiore proceffu fe extendente, qua- tuor incifuris rubris a fumma, duabus ab ima parte fulcato, in colore pallentis ochrae. Quod inter has & caput eft, fubcoeruleum eft, & ea figura qua luna eft, cum exadli dies decem funt a coitu. Per fumma corporis totius nigrefcit, nifi qua oculi funt, qui in albo conftituti funt: per ima exalbefcit tota, nifi fummo pedlore, qua nigricat. Viuit ex mari. Hunc noftri Puphinum dicunt, nos Pupinum a naturali voce pupin. Latitat in cauernis, vt charadrius. Eam ob rem edudla e cuniculi cauea auis h?c eft, loco non procul a mari pofito, a venatore quodam immiffa viuerra. In pifcis vfu apud nos eft in folenni ieiunio per [f. 22] quadragefimam: carne & guftu. Phocae marinae haud difsimilis. Gregale animal eft, & fua habet latitandi tempora, vt Cuculus & Hyrundo. Oua parit in terrae very great luxury with us, and of great price, It is a mimic. And so, as the Scops and Otus are taken by an imitation of dancing, this bird is caught at night by the light of a candle according to the motion of the captor. For if he stretches out an arm, the bird lifts a wing; if he stretches out a leg, it does likewise. In short, whatever part the fowler plays, the bird does the same. So being intent on the man’s actions, it is fooled by the bird-catcher and caught in his net. It is a little bird, of the size of a Starling, with only three fore-toes and no hind-toe, a black crown, white cheeks, and colour almost that of a Quail, if you were to mix with it a little ash-colour, especially round the neck. I call it Morinellus for a double reason, both because it is a bird most abundant among the Morini, and because it is a foolish bird, foolishness being by the Greeks called /uLcoporr]^. On this account our people also call it Doterell, as if they were to say doating with folly. Of the Puphin or Pupin. There is a certain sea-bird of our country, in size and form of body like a little Duck (which the Greeks call /Soa/caf}), with webbed and reddish feet, placed nearer to the hinder parts than in other web-footed kinds except the Pygosceles: with a somewhat thin beak, rather more extended in breadth vertically than stretching laterally to a very great length, furrowed by four red grooves above, and two below, pale ochre in colour. The part lying between these and the head is bluish, and of such a shape as is the moon, when ten days have elapsed from conjunction. The bird is black on the upper surface of the whole body, save where the eyes are set, which are enclosed in white : but it is wholly white below, save on the upper breast, where it is black. It gets its living from the sea. This bird our people call the Puphin, we say Pupin from its ordinary cry of “ pupin.” It hides in holes, as the Charadrius does. And so it is driven out from a rabbit’s burrow by a ferret turned in by any hunter in a place situated not far from the sea. It is used as fish among us during the solemn fast of Lent: being in substance and taste not unlike a Seal. It is a gregarious animal, and has its proper time for lying hidden, as the Cuckoo and Swallow. cuniculis bina magna ex parte. Alis non confidit nifi confpedlo mari. Pigrum videtur animal, fed iniurie patiens. Vefcitur carne lubentius quam pifce, & cuniculi quam alterius animalis, fed vtroque crudo: codla & affa refpuit. Cetera non attingit humana (^dulia. Aeftate fe lauat, fed nunquam, quod obfer- uatione deprehendi poteft, bibit: an quod aqua marina carebat, nefcio. Excrementum alui illi eft quale accipitri. Cum non effet quod ederet, cibum voce naturali geminata & fummiffa, pupin, pupin clamitando, implorabat. Alebam domi meae ad menfes o6lo. Mordebat lubenter miniftrantes cibum, aut attingentes, fed benignius atque innocentius. Exiguo cibo fati- atur. Non enim vorax auis eft vt Coruorans nofter, Co7'uorans quem tu (Gefnere charifsime) coruum aquaticum & /eu Me7gus. redle nominas, noftri Cormorantem corrupte dicunt, nefcientes ex vocis aetymo coruum vorantem appellari debere. Quod naturaliter facit, cum illi a natura vnicum tantum inteftinum fine elice (vt aiunt) redlum fit conceffum, propter vehementiam caloris naturalis, citifsime abfumentis quae affumuntur omnia. De Spermologo fen Frugilega. Spermologus nofter a cornice nigra nulla in re differt, nifi rnoru innocentia, irpoXolBw feu ingluuie, [f. 22 b] qua granum legendo continet, vt ad fuos referat: (eft enim gutturofus) albo callo, qui in fummo roftro eft ad caput: & voce, quam habet gutturalem & raucam. Vnde forfan noftris, quibus nomina rerum multa Latina fimt & Greca (vti libro noftro de fym- phonia vocum Britannicarum diximus) rouce dicitur, quafi rauce Anglis, raucus Latinis fit dicendus : vidlu quoque a coruo differt, quod frumento, hordeo, & cetero femine (vnde nomen airep/moXoyov inuenit apud Grc^cos) vefcitur. Vefcitur & vermibus, vbi frugis frumentique copia non eft. Hinc ruftici noftri dubitant It lays for the most part two eggs in rabbit burrows in the earth. It does not trust to its wings save in sight of the sea. It seems a lazy animal, but patient of injury. It eats flesh more readily than fish, and that of a rabbit in preference to that of any other animal, but in either case raw: it throws up what is boiled or roasted. Other human victuals it does not touch. In summer it washes itself but never drinks, so far as can be ascertained by observation ; whether this was because salt water was wanting, I know not. The droppings are like those of an Accipiter. When there was nothing to eat it begged for food with its ordinary cry repeated and lowered, by calling out “pupin, pupin.” I kept one at my house for eight months. It bit with right good will those who supplied it with food or touched it, but in a mild and harmless way. It was satisfied with little food. For it is not a voracious bird, as our Corvorant is, which you (dearest Gesner) rightly name Corvus aqiLaticus and Mergus, while our people corruptly say Cormorant, not knowing from the derivation of the word that it ought to be called the Crow that devours. And this it does naturally, since it is endowed by nature with only one intestine straight and without a coil (as they say), on account of the vehemence of the natural heat, which very quickly consumes all that it swallows. Of the Spermologus or Frugilega. Our Spermologus differs in nothing from a black Crow, save in the harmlessness of its habits, in the 7rpoXo/5o9 or crop, which holds the grain as it is picked up, that it may bear it to its young (for it is pouched): in the white callus, which extends from the base of the beak to the head ; and in its voice, which is guttural and harsh. Whence possibly by our people, among whom there exist many Latin and Greek names for things (as we have said in our book on the Harmony of British words) it is called Rouke, as if it should be called Rauce by the English and Raucus by the Latins: also in food it differs from the Crow in that it eats wheat, barley, and other seeds (whence it got the name of airepfio- X0709 among the Greeks. It also eats worms, when there is not plenty of corn or grain. Hence our country people doubt maior ne fit ex eis vtilitas agris dum legunt vermen, frugis & fementis peftem, an inutilitas hominibus dum vorant granum, hominis nutrimentum. Tanta tamen multitudo eft, vt legibus condemnentur: innocens alioqui auis atq^ vtilis. Agricolis enim teneri adhuc ex nido, in cibo funt. Non nifi excelfis arboribus, idque focietate quadam numero^ nidificant, cohabitant, & confidunt. De Sacropfittaco. Pfittacorum plura effe genera obferuaui. Quidam enim pufilli, magnitudine videlicet turdi, toto quidem corpore virides funt, fed caudam longam atque gracilem, & eam aut flauam, viridem, aut puniceam habent. Quidem^ rurfum grandes funt admodum, cornicis magnitudine, ex toto punicei feu rubri, nifi fub imo ventre, [f. 23] extremis alis, & extima cauda, quibus partibus cum coeruleo virefcunt. His roftrum eft magnu, cauum, pellucidum, & aduncum, medio tantum fui pallidum, vtroque extremo ex parte nigrum, vt & inferior maxilla tota nigra, cuius cauitatem lingua dura & nigra cqterorum Pfittacorum modo & forma occupat. Vtrin- que genae, in cute rugofa, figura fere triangulari ob- tufa, candicant, rubris mollium pennarum ordinibus qquidiftanti parallelo indudlis, & alicubi etiam fine ordine. Oculus paruus, & in albo cilio cuticulari conftitutus, pupillam habet nigram, quam circundat aureus circulus. Digitos habet quatuor ita effor- matos, vt videatur natura voluiffe omnes anteriores feciffe, retorfiffe tamen duos in auerfum firmandi corporis caufa. Hos Brafilia mittit, quos propter infignem magnitudinem Sacropfittacos nominamus. Sacrum. Veteres enim quod preciarum magnumque erat, facrum dicebant. Vt facrum os, facram aiichoram, facrum falconem, quem hierofalconem dicunt, facrum pifcem, lepov ixevo<^, facram famem, & facrum morbum. Huius generis imaginem quam a nobis accepifti, fubiunge. Ceteros inter hos magnitudine medios, aliae regiones, vt infula Hifpania, Aegyptus, & India ferunt, fed colore vario. Alij enim toto corpore cinereo, caudas habent fultas, breuiores & puniceas. 1 A misprint for Quidam. whether their utility is greater in the fields, when they pick up the vermin, destructive to crops and seeds, or their harmfulness to men, when they devour grain, the food of man. However the number of them is so great, that they are condemned by the laws ; harmless and useful birds in other respects. For, when still tender from the nest, they are used as food by country men. Only in lofty trees, and that as it were, in company and in numbers do they nest, abide and roost. Of the Sacropsittacus. I have observed that there are many kinds of Parrots. For some that are small, namely of the size of a Thrush, have the whole body quite green, but the tail, which is long and slender, either yellow, green, or crimson. Again some are very large, of the size of a Crow, altogether crimson or red, except under the lower belly, on the ends of the wings, and on the tip of the tail, on which parts they shew greenish blue. These have a large beak, hollow, shining and hooked, pale only in its middle, partly black at each end, while the lower jaw is entirely black, the cavity being filled by the tongue, which is hard and black of the style and shape of that of other Parrots. The cheeks on both sides are whitish on the wrinkled skin, in shape almost obtusely triangular, the rows of soft red feathers being set in equidistant parallel lines, though in some places also without being in rows. The eye, small and set in a white ring of skin, has a black pupil, which is surrounded by a golden circle. It has four toes fashioned in such a way that nature seems to have intended to place all of them in front, but to have turned two of them back for the sake of supporting the body. Brasil sends us these birds, which we call Sacropsittaci on account of their remarkable size. For the ancients used to call that Sacrum, which was notable and large. As the os sacrum, anchora sacra, falco sacer—which they call Hierofalco, piscis sacer, lepov puevo^, fames saera, and morbus saeer. Compare with these the picture of this kind, which you have received from us. Other regions, as the Spanish Isle, Egypt and India, produce other kinds which are midway in size, but with various colouring. For some with the whole body grey have strong tails, some- T. 14 in extremoque lunares. Alij ex toto virides funt. Alij cum corpore vireant, cauda longa flauefcunt. [f. 23 b] Mores habent omnes fimiles, & vidlum communem, nifi quod Sacropfittacus, pane bera macerato, carne, & pifce etiam vefcatur. De Cortiis albis. Anno domini. 1548. Augufto menfe, coruos duos candidos ex eodem nido vidi & contredlaui iftic in Cumbria nofhrm Britanniae, apud eiufdem prouinciae comitem natiuos, atque ita ad aucupium fadlos vt accipitres. Nam & brachio falconarij quiete infidere, & foluti ad eius vocem atque fignum vel e longinquo quam celerrime aduolare do6li erant. Hos nihil eft infauftum cofequutu, vt albas illas hirundines, de quibus Alexander Myndius apud ALlianu. Nam qui Vrjus albus, coruu album notat, colorem notat: vt qui vrfum Vulpes ni- album & vulpem nigram : quorum vtrumque vidimus ex Mofcouia ifhic in Britannia. Quanquam vulpem nigram non queo dicere, etfi vulgus nigram vocet: fed potius fufcam, aut obfcure grifeam reliquo corpore. Nam genas atque tibias tantum fufcas habet, clunes atque caudam. Expletis iam quae de volatilibus ad te fcripfi mi Gefnere, fuo ordine pifces confequuntur. . what short and crimson, and crescent-shaped at the tip. Others are entirely green. Others, though they are green on the body, are yellowish on the long tail. All have like habits, and the same kind of food, save that the Sacropsittacus eats bread soaked in beer, flesh, and even fish. Of White Ravens. In the year 1548, in the month of August, I saw two white Ravens from the same nest, and handled them at the very place in Cumberland of our Britain, bred on the property of a lord of that county, and trained for bird-catching just like hawks. For they had been taught both to sit quietly on the arm of the falconer, and when loosed to fly as quickly as possible to his call and sign even from a distance. Nothing unlucky followed them, as in the case of those white Swallows, about which Alexander Myndius wrote according to JElmn. For he who notes a white Raven notes the colour; as he does who notes a white Bear and a black Fox ; both of which I have seen here in Britain from Muscovy. Yet I can hardly call a Fox black, although the common people call it black; but rather dusky or dull grey on the rest of the body. For it has only the cheeks and the legs, with the rump and the tail, dusky. And now those things being finished which I have written to you of flying creatures, my Gesner, the fishes follow in due order. 14—2 V % iy< ^ • * ir - : *■ f li' ■ \ T*^ V \ t> ■^i \ I INDEX. Acanthis, 52, 53 Accentor modularis ? xvii Accipiter, 14-18, 57, 66, 67, 206, 207 nisus, XV paluinbarius, 14, 15, 18, 19, 56, 57 Accipitres, 14-17, 38, 66, 67, 116-118, 138, 139, 166 Act itis hypoleucus, xvii, 57 Adler, xvi, 30 rEgithus, 74, 104, 162 Aisalo, 14-16 AEsalon, 16, 17 ’Aeros, 30, 31 Africancc or Africce, see Gallince ’Aidcou, 108 ’ AiyiOaXos, 130, 131 ” Aiy lOos, 160, 161 ’AcyoOrjXas, 48, 49 ’AiycoXios, 116 ’ AicrdXoju, 16, 17 ’’Aidria, iio, III ’Aravdis, 104, 105 'Aravdocpaya, 40 Alauda, xiv, 80, 81, 106, 107, 146, 147 A. arborea, xiv A. arvensis, xiv Alaudidce, xiv Albardeola, 38-40, 180, 181 Albicilla, 28, 30, 31 Alcedinidce, xiv Alcedo, 18-20, 22, 180, 181 A. ispida, xiv ’AXeKTOJp, 82, 83 ’AXeKTopcs, 82, 83 Alke, XV, 92, 93 \AXkv<Jov, 18, 19 Amsel, xviii, 114, 115 Anas, xii, xiv, 22, 23, 32, 48, 92, 93, 176, 180-183, 198, 204 A. boscas, XV, 47 A. indica, 196 A. turcica, 198 Anataria, 30-33 A natidcB, xv Anser, xi, xii, xv, 22-24, 26, 28, iio, 122, 180-183, 194, 196 A. bassanus, 30, 196 A. brendinus, 194 A. minor (the smaller), 180, i8r A. palustris, xi Anihus pratensis, xvi Apes, 98, 99 Apodes, 98-103 Apple-sheiler, 73 Aquila, xii, xv, 16, 17, 30-38, 46, 47, 56, 57, 120, 123, 128, 129, 138-141, 152, i53> 162, 163, 192 A, marina, 182 A. montana, 34 Aquila, Sea, 183 Aquila vera, 36 Aquilce, 30, 31 Ardea, xv, 36-40, 54, 112, 124 A. alba, 38, 39 A. cinerea, xv A. pella, 38, 39 A. stellaris, x, 38-41, 126, 127 Ardeae, 38, 39 A rdeidcc, xv Ardeola, 180, 181 Arlyng, xviii, 52, 53 Arn, xvi, 30, 31 Arn, Edel, xv, 36 Ascalaphus, 180, 181 Asio, 130, 131 A. otus, xvii ’Acr/caXcoTra^, 86, 87 Astur, 192 A. palumbarius, xv Asylus, 182, 183 Atricapilla, 44-47, 71, 110, iii, 160, 161, 182, 183 Attagen, xvii, 40-45, 86, 92, 93, 126, 12^ Attagena, 40, 41, 44, 45, 87 Atzel, XV, 142, 143 Aurifrisius, 192, 193 Aurivittis, 40, 41, 50, 51, 106-109, 182, 183 Aves Canar ice, 108 Aves Diovudea, 70, 71, 78 Aves tardiC, 130, 131, 168, 169 (see also I'arda) Balbushard, xv, 33 Balbiishardiis^ 32 Bald-Buzzard, 33 Bapea, 40 Bargander, 25 Bao'tXees, 152, 153 Bass Goose, 31, 197 Batis, 158, 159 Bdxis, 158, 159 Bauncok, 84 Bergander, xii, xv, 24, 25, 195 Bergandrus, 24 Bergdol, xv, 90, 91 Bernacle, 195 Bernachis, 194 Berndclac, 195 Berndclacus^ 194 Berndgander, 195 Bernicla, xi, 26, 30 B. leucopsis, xv Bernicle (Goose), x, xv, 27, 31 Bistard, xvi, 166, 167 Bistarda, xii Bittern, 41 Bittour, XV, 40, 41 Blackcock, ix, 43 Blak byrd, xviii, 114, 115 Blodtfinck, xvi, 160, 161 Bloudvinc, 161 Bloudvinca, 160 Ba)/roX6%os, 90, 91 Bonasa sylvestris, xvii Bosca, 48, 49, 182, 183 BoaKas, 204, 205 Botaurus, xiv B. stellaris^ xv, 41 Brachvogelchen, xviii, [58, 159 Bramlyng, xvi, 72, 73 Brant, xv, 'I'l Brauta, xi, 26 Brech vogel, xviii, 52, 53 Brendclac, 195 Brcndclacus, 194 Brend Gose, 194, 195 Brent Goose, 195 Baas {Bpvas), 46, 47 Bubo, 46, 47 B. ignavtis, xvii, 47 Buchfink, xvi, 72, 73 Bulfinc, 161 Bulfinca, 160 Bulfinch, X Bulfinche, xvi, 160, 161 Bunting, xvi, 135, 159 Bunting, Reed, x Bu utinga, 134, 158 Burgander, 25 Burrow Duck, 25 Bu shard, xv Bitskarda, 16 Bustard, xvi, 166 Buteo, xii, 14-18, 32 B. vulgaris, xv Buttor, XV, 123 Buttora, 122 Buttour, XV, 40, 4J Buzzard, 17 Buzzard, Moor-, ix Caddo, XV, 92, 93 Calidris, 180, 181 Canary Bird, xvi, 109 Capella, 182, 183 CapriniulgidcE, xv Caprimulgus, xii, xiii, 48-51 C. europceus, xv Carduelis, xii, 40, 41, 50-53, 182, 183 C. elegans, xvi C. spinus, xvi, 51 Carzdus, 180, 181 Cataracta, 70, 71, 180, 181 Ceppkus, 74, 75 Certhia, 52, 53 C. familiaris, xv, 65 Certhiidcz, xv Chaffinche (Chaffinch), xvi, 72, 73 Chalcis, 56, 57 CharadriidcE, xv XapaSpios, 181 Charadrius, 204, 205 C. pluvialis, xv XeXtSw^, 96, 97 "L7]v, 22, 23 Chenalopex, xii, 22-25 Cheneros, 22-28, 31 XXcopeus, 106, 107 XXcopiiou, 106, 107, 132, 172, 173 ' Chloris, xii XXwpty, 107-109 Chogh, XV, 92, 93 Choghe, 90, 91 Choghe, Cornish, xv, 90, 91 Chough, 91 Chough, Alpine, x, 91 Chough, Cornish, x XpvaofiTpLS, 40, 41 Chryso mitris, 52, 53 Ciconia, x, 54, 55, 62, 63, 92, 93, 180, 181 C. alba, xv Ciconiidce, xv Ciciwice, 120, 121 Cicunite, 120 Cinclidoe, xv Cincius, xiii, 54-57; 170, 171, 180, 181 C. aquaticus, xv, 23 Circus^ I4“i7 C. ceruginosiis^ xv, 33 C. cyanius, xv Clake, 194, 195 Clanga, 30, 31 Clotburd, xviii, 52, 53 Cnipolegos, xiii Cob, xvi, 79 Cobbi vuxrini, 78 Cocfolhrausies, xiii Ca;nileo, 52, 53 Cok, xvii, 82, 83 Cok of Kynde, 84 Collus^ 88, 89 Colhcrio, 58, 59 Columba^ xv, 14, 58-60 C. anas, xv C. palumbus, xv C. vulgaris, 194 Columba, 58, 59 Columbi, 14, 18, 42, 44, 58-61 Columbida, xv Columbus, 18, 58-62, 66, 67, 180, 181 Comatibis comata, 93 C. eremita, xvi, 93 Coot, 77, 199 Copera, xiv, 80, 81 Cormorans, 206 Cormorant, ix, xvii, no, in, 207 Corn-Crake, 71 Cornish Choghe, xv, 90, 91 Cornix, xii, 64, 65, 90, 91, 118, 148, 208 C. aquatica, 22 C. hyberna, 64 Corvida, xv Corvorans, 206 Corvorant, 207 Corvus, X, 34, 64, 65, 92, 93, 206, {albus) 210 Corvus (web-footed), 183 C. aquaticus, x, 92, 93, 206, 207 C. calvus, 92 C. corax, xv C. cornix, xv, 65 C. cor one, xv, 65 C. frugilegus, xv, 65 C. monedula, xv C. nocturnus, xii, xiii C. palmipes, 182 C. sylvaticus, x C. vorans, 206 Coxy dos, 82, 83 Cotile riparia, xvi Coturnix, 62, 63, 68, 104, 105, 126- 129, 138, 139’204 C. communis, xviii Coushot, XV, 60, 61 , Cout, xvii, 33 Couta, 32 Crake, Corn-, 71 Crannnesvogel, 172, 173 Crane, x, 55, 94? 95» 97’ ‘95 Craspecht, xvii, 149 Cx'aspechta, 148 Creeper, 53 Creeper, Tree-, ix Creeper, Wall-, 53 Crepera (Creper), xv, 52 Crex, 68-71, 128, 129 C. pratexisis, xvii, 71 Crow, xv, 64, 65, 119, 149, 207, 209 Crow (that devours), 207 Crow-Picus, 149 Crow, Carrion, 65 Crow, Hooded or Grey, 65 Crow, Sea, 65 Crow, Winter, xv, 68 Cryel Heron, xv, 38 Cuckoo, ix, X, 205 Cttculida, XV Cuculus, 48, 49, 66-69, 204 C. canoxnxs, xv Cukkow, XV, 66, 67, 69 Culicilega, xiii, 64, 65, 182, 183 Cui'uca, 68, 69, 182, 183 Cychranms, 128, 129 Cygnus, xiii, xiv, 126, 127, 196 C. olor, xv Cyxnindis, 16, 17, 56, 57 Cypselida, xv Cypselus apus, xv C. melba, xv Cypsellus, 100, loi Daker ITen, xvii, 70, 71, 128, 129 Daulias luscinia, xvii Daw, 65, 77 Dendrocopus majorl xvii Dike Smolder, xvii, 136, 137 Diomede (birds of), xvii, 71, 79 Dipper, 23 Distelfinck, xvi, 40, 41 Distelvinc, 41 Distelvinca, 40 Dol, XV, 92, 93 Doterel, 205 Doterellus, 204 Douker, xvii, 176, 177 Dove, X, XV, 15, 58-61, 63, 97 Dove, Ringged, xv, 60 Dove, Venice, xv, 63 Drossel, xviii, 172, 173 ApvoKoXdiTTrjs, 146, 147 Ducher, xvii, no, in, 176, 177 Duck, XV, 22, 23, 25, 33, 49, 17 199’ ^05 Duck, Indian, 197 Duck, Turkish, 199 Duck, Wild, 47 Durstel, xviii, 172, 173 Duve, XV, 58, 59 Duve, Tiirtel, xv, 60 l^agle, 31, 33, 37, 39, 47, 193 Eagle, Sea, 193 Ebeher, xv, 54, 55 Egle, xvi, 30 Egle, Right, xv, 36 ’E7wXtos, 116 Eissvogel, xiv, i8, 19 Elster, XV, 142, 143 Elsterspecht, xvii, 149 Elsterspechta, 148 Emberiza citrinella^ xvi E. miliaria^ xvi E. schceniclus, xvi Endt, 22, 23 Engelchen, xvi, 108, 109 Ephemerus^ 28, 29 Ephimerus^ 28 "Ettotts, 174, 175 Eritliaciis ruhecula, xvii ’Eyoida/cos, 154, 155 ’Ept^ea, 154, 155 Erna^ xii, 30 Erne, xii, xvi, 31 ’EpMs, 36, 37 Eul, xvii, 120, 121 Eul, Schleier, xvii, 130, 131 {see Ranseul) Ealco cBsalon, xv E. sacer, 208, 209 E. subhuteo, xvi Ealconidce, xv, xvi E'alciila, 98-102 Fasant, xvii, 140, 141 Fasian, xvii, 140, 141 Eedoa, xvii, 44, 45 Feldefare, Feldfare, xviii, 58, 59 Fenclake, 194, 195 Fenlagge, 194, 195 Fenlake, 194, 195 Eicedida, 45, 70, 71, 182, 183 Fieldfare, ix Finch, 19, 119 Flasfinc, xvi, 159 Elasfinca, 158 Elorus, 74, 75, 104, 105, 160, i6r, 182, 183 Fo'wl, 201 Fox Goose, 25 Eringilla, 18, 52, 53, 72-75, 118, 13O5 13b I49> ^82, 183 E. Calebs, xvi E. Dwntifringilla, xvi Eringillago, 130, 131 Fringillarius, 14, 15, 18, 19 Eringillidte, xvi Erugilega, 64, 65, 182, 183, 206, 207 Eidica, ,70, 71, 74-79, 180, 181, 198 F. air a, 77 P\ nigra xvii Fidvia, 34, 35 Galerita, xiii, i8, 56, 57, 80-83 G. cristata, xiv Galgulus (Galgalus), 88-91, 146, 147, /82, 183 Galli, 82, 83 Gallina, 86, 87, 138, 140, 148 G. cohortalis, 84 G. getula, 200 G. nigra, 32 G. jtigra aquatica, 76 G. tiumidica, 84, 85 G. palustris, 76 G. rustica, 82, 84, 86 Gallinaceus, 180, 181 Gallince, 18, 82-87 G. africancB {africce), 82, 84, 86, 87 G. Hadriana, 84-87 G. 7jillaticce, 82, 84, 86 Gallinago, 40, 41, 86-88, 146, 147 Gallimda chloropus, xvii Gallus, 82, 83 G. domesticus, xvii, 42 G. ferrugineus, xvii G. gallinaceus, 200 G. medicus, 84 VaixpC)v\)xc-S, 40 Ganss, xv, 22, 23 Ganss, Loffel, xvii, 150, 151 Ganss, Trap, xvi, 166, 167 Garrtdus glandarius, xv Gavia, 78, iro, iii, 180, 181 G. alba (White Gavia), 78, 180, j8r G. cinerea (Grey Gavia), 78, 180, 181 GavicB marincE, 78 Gecimis viridis, xvii Geelgorst, xvi, 106, J07 Geir, xviii, 176, 177 Fepavos, 94, 95 Gersthammer, xvi, 135 Gersthammera, 134 Geyr, xviii, 176, 177 Geyr Swalbe, xv, 102, 103 Ghiandaja, 145 r\a3^, 120, 121 Glede, xvi, 116, 117 rXcurrtS; 104, 105 Godwit, ix Godwitt, xvii, 45 Godwitta, 44 Goldfinc, 41 Goldfinca, 40 Goldfinche, xvi, 40, 41 Gold hendlin, xviii, 168, 169 Goose, 23, 25, 27, 29, III, 123, 139, 195, 197 Goose, Bass, 31, 197 Goose, Bernacle (or Bernicle), x, 27, Goose, Brant (or Brent), xv, 27, 195 Goose, Fox, 25 Gose, XV, 22 Goshawk, 19 Gosling, 177 Gouke, XV, 66, 67 Graculi^ 90, 91, 94» 95 Graculus^ x, 90, 91, 94) 95 Graesmusch, xviii, no Grasmuklen, xviii, 44, 45 Grasinuschen, 47 Grasnmschus, 46, 72 Grassmusch (Grasmusch), xvii, xvni, 73) 136, 137 Grass-sparrow, in Greenfinch, 41 Grenefinc, 107 Grenefinca, 106 Grenefinche, xvi, 104, 105 Grey-clak, 195 Grey Hen, ix Grey-Lag, 195 Grouse, liazel, xvii Griiidce^ xvi Grilnling, xii Grunspecht, xvii, 89, 113, 115, 149 Gricnspechta, 148 Grunspechtus, 88, 112, 114 Grtis, 54, 62, 63, 94-96) 180, 181, 195 G. communis^ xvi Gryphen, 178 Gryps^ 178, 179 Guinea Fowl, 85 Gull, 79 Gull, Black-headed, ix, 77 Gull, Grey, xvi Gull, White, xvi ruTTateros, 34 Yvp, 176, 177 Guse, Solend, xvii, 28 Gypaetus barbatus^ xvi, 129 HadriancB^ see Gallinte Hcematopiis, 102, 103 Halcyon^ 20, 21 Haliceetos, 36, 37, 192, 193 Haliaetus, 34, 35 H. albicilla, xvi Flan, xvii, 82, 83 Harrier, see Hen-Harrier and Marsh- Harrier Hawk, 18, 19, 39, 68, 119, 167 Fledge-Sparrow, xvii, 136, 137 Hen, xvii, 82, 83 Hen, Getuliaii, 201 Hen-Harrier, ix, 19 Hen-Harroer, xv, 18 Hen, Marsh, 77 Hen, Mot, xvii, 170, 171 Hen, Water, xvii, 77, 170, 171 Heron, xv, 36, 37, 41, 55, ii3) 125 Heron, Blue, 38 Fleron, Cryel, xv, 38 Fleron, Dwarf, xv, 38 Heron, Night, xiii Flewhole, xvi, 115, 149 Hierofalco, 208, 209 Iliinantopns, 102 Hiiinularia^ 30, 31 IliriindiiiidLe^ xvi Hirundo^ 96-102, 116, 117, 170, 173 //. agrestis, 98 H. [alba), 210 H. aquatica, xiii H. domestica, 100 //. riparia, 98-102 PI. rufula, 99 H. rustica, xvi, 98, 100, loi Hobbia, i8 Hobby, ix, xvi, 19 Holtzsnepff, xvii, 86, 87 Floltztaube, xv, 60, 61 FIdn, xvii, 82, 83 Horn Oul (Owl), xvii, 130, 131 FIoup, xviii, 174, 175 Howlet, xvii, 120, 121 Howpe, xviii, 174, 175 Huhol, xvii, 89, 115 Huhola, 114, 148 Huholus, 88 Ilydrochelidon nigra, xvi Hyrundo, 204 laia, 144 Ibididas, xvi Ibis, Glossy, 57 Ibis, Red-cheeked, xvi Icteros, 88, 89 "Iktlvos, 116, 117 Iliacus, 170, 171 Iynx, 146-149 I. torquilla, xvii Jay, XV, 145 Junco, 102, 103, 170, 171, i8o, 181 Ka, XV, 92, 93 Kastrel, xvi, 166, 167 Kautz, xvii, 46, 47 Keyxpi-h 166, 167 KeAeos, 88, 89, 146 KeTT^os, 74-77 Kersenrife, xvi, 172, 173 KtX^a, 170, 171 lUyKXos, 54, 55 Kingfisher, xiv, 21, 23 Kirsfincke, xvi, 104, 105 Kistrel, xvi, 166, 167 Kite, X, 117, 193, 197 Kite (Blacker), 117 IUttu, 142, 143 KuLTToXoyos, 64, 65 Koelmussh (Koeltnusch), xvii, 136, 137 Koelm ussh us, 136 Kokkv^, 66, 67 Kok of Incle, xvii, 86 KoXtos, 88, 89, 146, 147 KoWvpiiov, 58, 59 Kolmeyse, xvii, 130, 131 Ko\o66s, 90, 91, 146 Ko\v/ij3pis (KoXvp-^is), 176, 177 KopaKias, 90, 91 K6pa^, 64, 65 KopibpT], 64, 65 KopvdaXos, 80, 81 Kopvdos, 80-83 KoTTV(p6s {KoTTTVCpOs), H4, IJ5 Krae, xv, 64, 65 Kraeg, xv, 64, 65 Krammesvogel, xviii, 58, 59, 170, 171 Kriiii, xvi, 94, 95 Kranich, xvi, 94, 95 Kvauos, 52, 53, 181 Kukkuck, XV, 66, 67 Kijkvos, 82, 83, 120, 121 Kuningsgen, xviii, 152, 153 Kyngesfissher, xiv, 18, 19 Kyte, xvi, 116, 117 Kywit, XV, 77 Kyivitta, 76 Laves, 14, 15 Lag opes {Lagvpus), 104, 105 Aayojcpopos, 34 Lagopits vmtus, xviii L. scoticus, xviii Lanimergeier, 36, 129 Laniidce, xvi Lanius excubitor, xvi L. minor?, xvi Lapwing, x, xv, 175 Lcipzvinga, 76, 174 Laridce, xvi Lark, 19 Adpos, 74, 75, 78, 79 Larus, xvi, 74, 75, 78, 79 L. ridibundus, xvi, 77 Laverock, xiv, 80, 81 Lefler, xvii, 150, 151, J53 Lejiera, 152 Leporaria, 34, 35 Lerc, 81 Lerc, Wilde, 81 Lerca, 80 Lerch, xiv, 80, 81 Lerch, Heid, xiv, 80, 81 Lerck, Wod-, xiv, 80 Lerk, xiv, 80, 81 , Lerk, Heth, xiv, 80 Lerk, Wilde, xiv, 80 AevKepojdLos, 38, 39 Libiciis, 164 Al^vkos, 164, 165 Libyan Bird, 165 Ligurinus, 104, 105 L. chloris, xvi Limosa belgica, xvii Linaria, ‘158, 159 Lingett, xviii, 47, 111 Lingetta, 46, no Lingulaca, 104, 105, 128, 129 Linot, xvi, 51, 159 Linota, 50, 158 L. cannabina, xvi Livia, 58-61 Lolfel Gafiss, xvii, 150, 151 Loun, xvii, 177 Louna, 176 Avkos, 90, 91 Liiningk, xvi, 132, 133 Lupus, 90, 91, 94, 95 Luscinia, 44, 45, 68, 69, 108-111 iMtea {^Luteus), 106-108 Luteola, 108, 109, 182, 183 Lyke Foule, xvii, 46, 47 Lyssklicker, xiii MaXaKOKpapevs, 116, 117, 132 Mareca penelope, xv, 22 Marsh-Harrier, 33 Marsh-Hen, 77 Martinette (or Martnette), Chirche, xv, 102, 103 Martinette, Rok, xv, 102, 103 Martnet, Bank, xvi, 102, 103 Matrix, 128, 129 (cp. 126) Mavis, xviii, 172, 173 Medicos, 84, 85 Meelmeyse, xvii, 130, 131 MelcenaHos, 34, 35 XleXayKopvcpos, 44, 45 MeXameros, 34 Meleagris, 82-87, 140, 141, 200, 201 Melica, 84, 85 Mercolphus, xv, 144, 145 Alergus, xiv, 76, 77, no, in, 126, 127, 176, 177, 180, 181, 206, 207 Merl, xviii, 114, 115 Merlin, xv, 17 Merlina, 16 Meropida, xvi Merops, 112-115 M. apiaster, xvi Merula, 48, 49, 52, 53, 82, 83,. 114, 115, 146-149, 164, 165, 170, 171 AL aquatica, xiii Mewe, Wyss, xvi, 74, 75 Meyse, 130, 131 Meyspeclit, xvii, 162, 163 JMeyspechitts, 162 Miliaria, 50, 51, 158, 159 Alilvius {Milvus), 16, 17? ii7) 192, 196 Milvus ictinus, xvi M. ater {nigrior), xvi, 116 Mistletoe-Thrush, xviii Molliceps, 58, 59, 116, 117, 120, J21, 132, 133, 168, 169 Monedula, 64, 76, 90-93, 146-149 Monetula, 90, 91 Monlicola, 130, 131 Montifringilla, 72, 73, 182, 183 Moor-Buzzard, ix, 33 Moorhen, 171 Morhen, xviii, 87, 171 Alorhenna, 86 Alorinellus, 202-205 Alorphna {Morphnos), 30, 31 Mortetter, xviii, 159 Morteitera, 158 Motacilla, 64, 65 M. alba, xiii, xvi M. lugtLbris, xvi Motacillida:, xvi Mot Hen, xvii, 170, 171 Miische, xvi, 132, 133 Myre Dromble, xv, 38 Nachtgal, xvii, 108, 109 Nachtra, xii, xiii Nachtrab, xiii Nachtrap, xii Naghtrauen, xii, xiii Ne/3po06i'os, 30 X?}rra, 22, 23 lAyiTTopovos, 30 Neun murder, xvi, 168, 169 Neunmilrder, Grosse, 168, 169 Night-Heron, xiii Noctua, 46, 47, 120, 121, 130, 131, 180, 181 Nonna, 132 Nousbrecher, xv, 94 Niicifraga, 94, 95 N. caryocatactes, xv Nucipeta, 162 Nuin murder, xvi, 116, 117 ISvKTLKOpa^, 120, 130 Numida meleagris, xvii Numidica, see Gallina Nun (Non), xvi, 133 Nushiikker, xvii, 162, 163 Nutcracker, x Nutjobber, xvii, 162, 163 Nutseeker, 163 Nycticorax, xii, xiii Nyghtyngall, xvii, 108, 109 Nyn murder, xvi, 116, ii7> 168, 169 Nyroca ferina, xv Oivds, 62, 63 Oistris, xvii, 164, 165 Olor, 120-123, 126, 180-183 Onocrotalus {Onocratalus), x, xiii, xiv, 122—127 Orfraie, 193 Oriolidx, xvi Oriolus galbula, xvi ’OpoaTrt^rjs, 72, 73 ”OpTv^, 62, 63 Ortygometra, 126-129 Osel, Black, xviii, 114, 115 Osprey, ix, xvi, 34, 35, 37, i93“i95 Ossifraga, 36, 118, 128, 129, 193 O. barbata, j 28 Ossifrage, 37, 129 Ossifrage, Bearded, 129 OtididcE, xvi Otis, 130, 13 i, 168, 169 (9. tarda, xvi ’firos, 120, 130, 131 Ottis, [28-131, 204, 205 "Ovpaf 166, 167 Ousel, Water, 23 Owl (Old), xvii, 120, 121 Owl, Eagle, 47 Owl, Hawk, 157 Owl, Horn, xvii, 130, 131 Owl, Horned, 120 Oxei, Great, xvii, 130 Oxeye, Great, 131 Pageliin, xvii, 136, 137 Palmipedes, 120 Palumbarius, 14, 15, 18, 19, 56, 57 Palumbes, 58-61, 68, 69, 180, 181 Palumbus, 18, 60, 61 Pandion halia'eHcs, xvi Pandionidce, xvi Papegay, xvii,-150, 151 Paphus, 50, 51 IldpSaXos, 58 Pardalus, 132, 133 Par idee, xvi Parrot, xvii, 209 Partridge, 43, 63, 141, 203 Parus, 130-133, 182, 183 P. ater, xvii P. aeruleus, xvi P. major, xvii P. maximus, 132, 162 P. medius, 130 P. miniums, 132 P. palustris, xvii Passer {Pascer), 18, 72, 104, 106, 108, 137-139, 160, 168, 180-183 Passer communis, 134 P. do7nesticus, xvi P. graminciis, no, in P. haimndinaceiis, 104, 105 P. magnus, 134 P. sepiari'us, 136, 137 P. torguaUis, 134, 135 P. troglodites {troglodytes'), 134-137 Passer, Common, 135 Passer, Great, 135 Passeixuhts, 134 Pavo, 136-139 P. cristatus, xvii P. indie us, 86 Peacock, 137, 139 Peacock, Indian, 87 Pecok, xvii, 136, 137 IleXetds, 60, 61 Pelecanus [Pelicanius), 150-153 IleXe/cd?/, 150, 151 Pella, 38, 39 Penelopes, 22-25 Penelops, 22, 182, 183 Percai, 14, 15 Percnoptemis, 34, 35 Perenos, 30-33 Perdix, xiv, 18, 42-44, 138-141, 180, 181, 202 P. cinerea, xvii P. rustica [rusticula), xii, 140, 141 P. vulgaris, xiv nepSiC 138, 139 HepLorepd, 58, 59 IlepLcrTepoeLdT], 40 Ilepurjs, 14 Penmix, 14, 15 Pertrige, xvii, 138, 139 Ptfaw, xvii, 136, 137 Phalacrocoracidx, xvii Phalacrocorax, x, 92-95 P. carbo, xvii P. graculus? xvii Phalaris, 92, 93, 182, 183 PhasianidcB, xvii Phasianus, 40, 140, 141, 200 P. colchicus, xvii ^arra, 60, 61 Pheasant, 41, 201 ^TjUT], 36 Phesan, xvii, 140, 141 Philomela, 108, 109 Phcenicura, 157 Phcenicurus, 154-15 7 Phoenix, xvii, 140, 141 i>0LVLK0Vp6s [(pOLULKOVpyOs), I 54, 155 Phoix, 38-41 38 Pica, 118, 142-145, 170, 171 P. granata, 144 P. marina, 198 Pica rustica, xv P. vulgaris, 144 Pic idee, xvii Picus, 54, 114, 115, 146-149, 162, 163 P. cornicinus, 148 Picus, Crow, 149 Picus, Green, 115 Picus marlius, xiii, xvii, 88, 89, 146, 147, 182, 183 P. maximus, 148 P. medius, 148 P. minimus, 148 P. vuddis, 112 Pie, 119, 145, 199 Pie, Common, 145 Pie, Sea, 199 Pie, Seed, 145 Pigargus [Pygargus), xii, 30, 31 Pigeon, 43, 45, 195 38, 39 Pilaris [Turdus), 170, 171 Plot, XV, 142, 143 Pipers (of Crane or Pigeon), 96, 97 Pipiones, 96, 97 Pipit, Tree-, 69 Pipo, 146, 147 Pittour, XV, 40, 41, 123 Pittourus, 40, 122 11X0,7705, 30 Plancus, 30, 31 Plaiiga, 30, 31 llXdi'os, 30 Platalea leucorodia, xvii, 41 Plataleidui, xvii Platea, 150, 151, 180, 181 Platelea, 150, 151 Plegadis falcinellus, 57 Plover, Stilt, 102 Pluver, XV, 132, 133 Pochard, xv, 49 Pochai'dce, 48 Podicipedidee, xvii Podicipes minor, xvii Popinjay, xvii, 150, 151 Porphyrio, 102, 103, 152, 153 P. caelestis, xvii Pratincola rubicola, xviii Upea^vs, 152, 153 “Priest,” 51 Procellariidce, xvii T'dpos, 164, 165 Psiiaca, 150 Psit ace, 150, 151 Psitacus [Psiticus), 82, 83, 142, 143, Psittacidee, xvii Psittacus {Sacropsittacus), 208-211 HTcpvps, [4 lirepuLs, 14 Ptynx, 56, 57 Index 22 1 Puffinus, xvii ni;7ap7os, 170; see Pigargus Pulla, 34, 35 Pulver, XV, 132, 133 Puphin, 205 Puphinus, 204 Pupin, 197, 205 Ptipinus, 196, 204 IleppoeXas, 160, i6t Ileppoupds, 161 Puttok, xvi, II6, 117 Py, XV, 142, 143 Pj/gargus, see Pigargics Pygosceles, 204, 205 Pyrrhoco7‘ax, 90-93 P. alphius, XV P. graculus, xv Pyrrhula europ(C.a, xvi Quail, 63, 69, 203, 205 Quale, xviii, 62, 63 Querquedula crecca, xv Quikstertz, xvi, 64, 65 Rabe, xv, 64, 65 Rail, Water, 71 Rala, xii, xiii, 140 R. aqiiatica, xii R. aquatilis, xiii R. montana, xiii R. sylvestris, xiii R. terrestris, xii Rale, xvii, 141 Rallida, xvii Rallus aquaticus, 71 Ranseul, xvii, 130, 131 Raphon, xvii, 138, 139 Rauce, 206, 207 Raucus, 206, 207 Raven, xv, 35, 64, 65 Raven, White, 211 Rayn byrde, xvii, 146 Redbreast, ix, 161 Redbreste, Robin, xvii, 154, 155 Rede Sparrow, xvi, 102, 103 Rede tale, xviii, 154, 155 Redshanc, xvii Redshanca, 102 Redshank, 103 Redstart, ix, 155 Reed-Bunting, x Reed-Sparrow, 105 Regulus, 52, 53, 118, 119, 134-137, 152-155, 168, 169, 182, 183 R. cristatus ? xviii Reydt Miiss, xvi, 102, 103 Reyger, xv, 36, 37 Ringel Taube, xv, 60, 61 Ringged Dove, xv, 60, 61 Ringtail, 19 Ringtale, xv Ringtalus, xii, 18 Ringtayle, xii Riparia, 98-102 Robin Redbreste, xvii, 154, 155 Rook, 65 Rosdom, xv, 40, 41, 123 Rosdomma, 122 Rosdommus, 40 Rotbrust, xvii, 154, 155 Rdtkelchen, xvii, 154, 155 Rotstertz, xviii, 154, 155 Rouce (Rouke), 206, 207 Rowert, xvi, 72, 73 Rubecula, 154-159) 182, 183 Rubetarius, 14, 15, 18, 19 Rubetra, 158, 159, 182, 183 Rubicilla, 156, 157, 160, 161, 182, 183 Rupex, 180, 181 Xv(T0fji7]Tpr]S, 40, 41 Rusticula, xii Rttticilla, 154-159 R. plmnicurus, xviii Sacropsittactis, 208-211 Salus, 160, 161 Sandpiper, ix Sandpiper, Common, 57 Saxicola ernanthe, xviii SxtfoTToSa, 40 SxoiVtKAos, 102, 103 Schrecke, 71 Schric, xvi, 169 Schricics, 168 Schriek, 71 Schryk, xvii, 70, 71 Schuffauss, xvii, 46, 47 Schuffel, xvii, 46, 47 Schwalb, xvi, 96, 97, 102, 103 ScolopacidcE, xvii Scolopax rusticula, xvii Scops, 204, 205 Scrica, xvii, 128, 129 Sea-Aquila, 183 Sea-Cob, 79 Sea-Eagle, 193 Sea-Pie, 199 Se Cob, xvi, 78-79 See Cell, xvi, 78-79 I^eLO-oirvyLS, 54, 55 Semaw (white with a black cop), xvi, 74) 75 Senator, 152, 153 Serinus canarms, xvi Shearwater, 71 Sheldappel, xvi, 72, 73 Sheld-Drake, 25 Shell-apple, 73 Shovelard, xvii, 41, 150, 151 Shovelarda, 38 Shric, 169 Shricus, 168 Shrike, ix, xvi, 116, 117 Siskin, xvi, 51, ro8, 109 Sitta, 162, 163 S. ccesia, xvii Sittidcc, xvii llKULTTOcpdya, 40 SxoXoTra^, 87 llKcjXrjKocpdya, 40 Smatche, xviii, 52, 53 Smerl, xv, 17 Smerla, 16 Snepff, Holtz, xvii, 42, 86 Sneppa^ 70, 71 Solend Guse, xvii, 28 Sparhauc, xv Sparhatica, 18 Sparrow, xvi, 73, 105, 107, 109, in, 132, 133» i35> 161, 169 Sparrow, Grass, r 11 Sparrow-HaMdc, 19 Sparrow, Hedge, xvii, 136, 137 Sparrow, Rede, xvi, 102, 103 Sparrow, Reed, 105 Spatz, xvi, 132, 133 Specht, xvii, 146, 147, 149 Spechta, 148 Speiren, xvi, 102, 103 Sperlingk, xvi, 132, 133 hirepjijioXoyos, 64, 65, 206, 207 Spermologus, 206, 207 Sperwer, xv, 18, 19 Spink, xvi, 72, 73 Spinus, 40, 41, 64, 65, 104-107, 182, 183 XirLi-a, 72, 73 Spoonbill, X, 41 Star, xvii, 164, 165 Starling, 23, 95, 165, 205 hreyavoTToda, 40 Steinbeisser, xiii Steinchek, xviii, 52, 53 Steingall, xvi, 166, 167 Stellaris, 14, 15, (Ardea) x, 38-41, 126, 127 Sterlyng, xvii, 164, 165 Stern, xvi, 79 Sterna, 78 S. 7iigra, 79 Steynbisser, xvii, 54, 55 Stigelitz, xvi, 40, 41 Stilt-Plover, 102 Stocdove, XV, 60, 61 Stonchatter, xviii, 159 Stone hattera, 158 Stor, xvii, 164, 165 Storck, XV, 54, 55 Stork, XV, 54, 55 Strauss, xvii, 164, 165 Strigidcs, xvii SU'ix stridula ? xvii hrpovdos, 132, 133 llTpovOos, 164, 165 Struthio, 44, 45, 164, 165 Sti'uthio cameltes, xvii, 92, 93, 164. 165, 168, 169 Stimthionides, xvii Sha-nidcB, xvii Sturntis, 22, 94, 164, 165, 168, 169, 204 S. vitlgaris, xvii Subaquila, 34, 35 Subuteo (Subbuteo), xii, 14, 15, 18, 19 2iwa\is, 70, 71 Sula bassana, xvii Sulidit, xvii Swalbe, Geyr, xv, 102, 103 Swalbe, Kirch, xv, 102, 103 Swalbe, Uber, xvi, 102, 103 Swale, xvi, 96, 97 Swallow (Swallowe), ix, xvi, 96, 97, ior-103, 205 Swallow, Black, loi Swallow, Great, xv, 102, 103 Swallow, House, loi Swallow, Water, xiii, xvii, 54, 55 Swan, xv, 120, 121, 123, 127, 197 Swan, XV, 120, 121 Sylvia, 182, 183 S. atricapilla, xviii S. rtifa, xviii Sylviidee, xvii, xviii Tadorna cormtta, xv, 25 llaihv, 136, 137 Tarda, xii, 180, 181, (see also Aves tardcB) Taube, xv, 58, 59 Taube, Ringel, xv, 60 Tela, 48 Tele, XV, 49 Tern, Black, ix, 79 Tetrao, q,o, 31, 130, 131, 166, 167 7\ tetrix, xviii Tetraonida, xviii Tetrix, 30, 31, 166, 167 lirX 166, 167 Thraupis, xii, 52, 53 QpavTTis, xii, 50, 51 Throssel, xviii, 172, 173 Thrusche, xviii, 170, 171 Thrush, 59, 119, 175, 177, 209 Thrush, Blue, 53 Thrush, Mistletoe, xviii Thrushe, xviii, 172, 173 Tichodroina mui'aria, 53 Tinunculus (Tinnunculus), 166, 167 Tinmincniltcs alaudarms, xvi Titlark, 69 Titling, 69 Tit I inga^ 68 Titlyng, xvi, 68, 69 Titmouse, 130, 131 Titmous[e], Great, xvii, 130, 131 Titmouse, Greatest, 133 Titmous[e], Less, xvii, 130, 131 Torqzidla [Torqnilla], 146-149 Totamis calidris, xvii Trapp (Trap), xvi, 31., 166, 167 Trappits, xii, 30 Tree-Creeper, ix Tree-Pipit, 69 Triorcha^ 14, 15 Trior dies, 16, 17 Tpcopxv^, 14» I<5, 17 Tpox'i^os, 152, 153 Trodiihis, 152, 153 Troglodytes ( Troglodites), 134-137 T, parvulus, xviii, 155 Troglodytidce, xviii ^pvyya%, 170, 171 Tpvyuv, 60 Trynga, 170, 171, 180, 18 r Tttrbo, 146-149 Ttmlidcr, xviii 7'urdus, 58, 102, 105, 118, 170-174, 208 T. iliacus, xviii, 170, 171 T. meiuda, xviii T. nuLsicus, xviii T. pilaris, xviii, 170, 171 T. viscivorus, xviii, 170, 171 Turtel Duve, xv, 60, 6r Turtle-Dove, 89 Tiirhir, 58-61, 88, 89, 146, 147, 172 -175, 180, 181 T. covinmnis, xv Tyrannus, 120, 121, 154, r55) ^68, 169 tile, xvii, 120, T21 Ulula, 130, 131 'T7rateT(is, 34 Upupa, 174, 175 U. epops, xviii UpupidcB, xviii Urax, 166, 167 Urinatrix, 92, 93, 176, 177, 182, 183 Valeria, 34, 35 Vannellus, 76, 77, 174, i75 V. vulgaris, xv Veit hrin, xvii, 138, 139 Venice Dove, xv, 63 Villatic(2, 82, 84, 86 Vinago, 58-63, 180, 181 Vipiones, 96, 97 Vireo, 58, 59, 106, 107, 148, 149, 172-^175 Viscivorus {Ttirdtis), 170, 171 Visharn, xvi, 34, 35 Vogelhain, xiii Vulpanser, xii, 24, 25, 182, 183 Vultur, xviii, 34, 166, 176-178 V. niger, 178 Vulture, 35, 177, 179 Vulture, Black, 179 Vulturidce, xviii Wachholtervogel, xviii, 170, 171 Wachtel, xviii, 62, 63 Wagtale, xviii, 64, 65 Waldrapp, x Wall-Creeper, 53 Waltrap, xvi Walt-rapp, x Waltrap7is, 92-95 Wasser Plen, xvii, 170, 171 Wasser Steltz, xvi, 64, 65 Water-Craw, xv, 22, 23 Water-IIen, xvii, 170, 171 Water-Hen (black with a white frontal patch), 77 Water Ousel, ix, 23 Water Rail, 71 Water Swallow, xiii, xvii, 54, 55 Weidwail, xvi, 172, 173 Weingaerdsvogel, xviii, 172, 173 Weye, xvi, ti6, 117 Wheatear, ix, 53 Widhopff, xviii, 174, 175 Wigene, xv, 48, 49 Wigeon, 22 Witwol, xvi, 172, 173 Wodcoccj'is, 42 Wodcok, xvii, 86, 87 Wodlerck, xiv, 80 Wodspechta, 148 Woodcock, 42, 45, 89 Woodpecker, 55 Woodspecht (Wodspecht), xvii, 149 Wren, xviii, 152, 153, 155 Wyngthrushe, xviii, 172, 173 Yelowham, xvi, 106, 107 Yowlring, xvi, 106, 107 Zaunkliningk, xviii, 152, 153 Zeysich, xvi, 108, 109 CAMBRIDGE*. PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. WELLCOME libra Bv f- E ' f ' ' ■ .y-r I ■ ' ■' ■ \ ■ i